The following research explores the development of financial culture in the early American republic through the examination of New York's use of debtors' prisons. Beginning with the construction of the historical context surrounding the passage and abolition of the National Bankrupt Act of 1800, the project takes use of a series of archival sources that exemplify the character of credit in early American economic practices. The emergence of republican financial culture was often at odds with federal judicial and legislative action, the result of which was the creation of state policy and third party organizations dedicated to solving the plight of a growing debtor population. As the narrative of debt transitioned from understanding the debtor as a villain towards a victim, traditional criminal punishments no longer represented cultural values. One such institution scrutinized and debated was the debtors' Gaol.

Stora företagsbedrägerier och skandaler såsom Kreuger, Enron och Worldcom där fordringsägare led omfattande förluster, följs ofta av en debatt om revisionens syfte och omfattning. Efter påtryckningar från EU om att minska den administrativa bördan, öka konkurrenskraften och stimulera Europas ekonomi, avskaffades revisionsplikten för mindre aktiebolag i Sverige 2010. Fordringsägare i form av bland annat kreditgivare och investerare är parter som kan drabbas vid en konkurs och har därför behov av att ha en fungerande relation med företaget. Tillsammans med kompletterande information från revisorer bidrar kreditbetyg till en bättre bild av kreditrisker som fordringsägare utsätter sig för. Syftet med studien är att öka förståelsen för revisionens betydelse i värderingen av ett litet företags betalningsförmåga när det sedan 2010 inte längre är ett lagstadgat krav att ha revisor. Studien ger även möjlighet till att bättre bedöma revisionens påverkan på kreditrisken för fordringsägare i händelse av konkurs. Detta är en triangulerande studie, där insamling av data har skett genom både kvalitativa intervjuer och kvantitativ information från 57 konkursbon av små bolag från 2009 och 61 från 2012. Intervjuerna har gjorts med 10 respondenter inom revision, kreditgivning och konkursförvaltning. Resultaten har analyserats utifrån framförallt agent- och intressentteorin. Studien har kommit fram till att användandet av revisor är en funktion som värderas högt. De har en viktig roll när det gäller att hjälpa företagare att leva upp till de ekonomiska kunskapskrav som omvärlden ställer. Även när det gäller bedömningen av företagets fortsatta drift kan revisorns kunskaper bidra till att minska risken för en obeståndssituation. Studien har dock inte kunnat fastställa att underskottens storlek i konkurserna har påverkats av om bolaget har haft revisor eller inte. Varken respondenterna eller sambandsanalysen styrker någon skillnad i påverkan på prioriterade borgenärer efter avskaffandet av revisionsplikten. För både 2009 och 2012 har många konkurser små underskott medan få har stora, vilket indikerar att kreditgivare i det flesta fall har kunnat göra rimliga kreditbedömningar. / Major fraud and scandals in corporations such as Kreuger, Enron and Worldcom where creditors suffered significant losses, are often followed with debate around the purpose and scope of corporate audits. After pressure from the EU in order to reduce the administrative burden, increase competitive capacity, and stimulate the European economy the mandatory auditing was abolished for small enterprises in Sweden in 2010. Creditors of which some are banks and investors are parties that who can be affected by a bankruptcy and are therefore dependent on a working relationship with the enterprise. Together with additional information from an auditor credit ratings will aid a creditor in the assessment of exposed risk. This study aims to increase the understanding of audit significance in the aspect of credit rating of small companies and their ability to fulfil payments to prioritised creditors in case of bankruptcy as the legislated audit no longer is a requirement. It will also provide a possibility to assess the influence of auditing on the credit risk creditor is subject to in the event of bankruptcy. The study is using a triangulating method where data is collected using both qualitative interviews and quantitative data from 57 bankruptcies of small enterprises from 2009 and 61 bankruptcies from 2012. The interviews were conducted with 10 respondents representing auditing, loans, and Insolvency practise. The results have been analysed from the perspective of Agent- and Stakeholder theories. The study has derived to the conclusion that the use of auditors does carry a significant value. They have an important role to play when it comes to assisting entrepreneurs to live up to the expectation and skills their counterparts have on them. Even the assessment made by auditors on the company’s ability to continue operation, going concern, is knowledge which can contribute to the prevention of a future situation of insolvency. The study has not been able to prove any relationship between the company's level of debt in bankruptcy and if the company has chosen to have an auditor. Neither respondents in the qualitative data collection nor the search for correlation in the quantitative data has been able to support findings of difference on the impact on the prioritised creditors between the companies using auditors and the ones not using auditors from the time after the abolishment of mandatory audits. From both 2009 and 2012 most bankruptcies have low deficits and a small number have high, which indicate creditors have been able to make reasonable credit assessments.

O trabalho tem por objetivo à análise jurídica do plano de recuperação e suas consequências práticas, questionando até que ponto o objetivo de um acordo imposto será alcançado, tendo em vista os diferentes interesses em jogo. A primeira parte é dedicada ao exame das disciplinas da recuperação, traçando um histórico evolutivo deste instrumento a partir da concordata. Neste ponto, são apresentadas as teorias quanto a sua natureza jurídica. A segunda parte, por sua vez, aponta breves considerações de como o direito alienígena disciplina a recuperação. Na terceira parte, o trabalho analisa a recuperação como jogo estratégico, pois existem riscos inerentes a sua execução. Isso porque, do ponto de vista econômico, o plano de recuperação, por ser contrato incompleto, impõe riscos, por portar variáveis não previstas, como por exemplo, a mudança de política econômica ou a crise financeira mundial. Assim sendo, o trabalho analisa as possibilidades de renegociação dos termos do plano, bem como as soluções que podem ser usadas quando da incompletude. Neste sentido, analisa os mecanismos da arbitragem, da governança coorporativa e da cláusula hardship, além dos princípios da boa-fé objetiva, função social do contrato, função social da empresa e teoria da imprevisão. Como a recuperação judicial e extrajudicial representam meios de reestruturação que beneficiam a coletividade de interessados: estando de um lado o devedor que pretende obter prazos para o cumprimento de suas obrigações; de outro lado os credores que visualizam uma forma de obter seus créditos, ainda existem outros (credores) que poderão discordar da proposta. Para sanar esta possibilidade (do credor buscar a solução individual de seus interesses em contraposição àqueles coletivos dos credores) a Lei 11.101/05 criou a modalidade impositiva, na qual se impõe aos dissidentes o acordo dos que aderiram voluntariamente. Por este motivo, há divergências quanto a natureza jurídica do plano de recuperação. Neste sentido, a quarta parte do trabalho traz considerações quanto a natureza jurídica dos planos de recuperação judicial e extrajudicial. / The aim of this work is assess the legal analysis of a judicial recovery plan and its practical consequences, questioning to what extent the objective of an agreement will be reached if come into force, given the different interests at stake. The first part deals with the consideration of the disciplines of recovery, tracing the evolutionary history of this instrument from a point of concordata. At this point, theories as to their legal nature are presented. The second part, in turn, brings brief considerations of how the foreign laws discipline the recovery. In the third part, the paper examines the recovery as a strategic game, since there are risks inherent in its execution. From an economic point of view, these risks arise from an incomplete contract carrying unforeseen variables, for instance, the change in the economic policy as well as the world wide financial crisis. So, the paper analyzes the possibilities of renegotiating the terms of the plan, as well as solutions that can be used when the incompleteness. In this sense, analyzing the mechanisms of arbitration, corporate governance and the hardship clause, in addition to the principles of objective good faith, the contract´s social function, the company\'s social function and theory of unpredictability. As the judicial and extrajudicial´s recovery represents means of restructuring, which benefits the collective of the people involved: on one side the debtor who wishes to obtain deadlines for compliance with its obligations, on the other side creditors who see a way to get their credits back, and also there are others (creditors) who may disagree with the proposal. To address this possibility (the creditor seeking the solution of his individual interests as opposed to those collective interests of creditors) Law 11.101/05 created the imposing form, which is imposed on dissidents, the agreement of those who joined voluntarily. For this reason, there are differences of opinion about the legal nature of the recovery plan. In this sense, the fourth part of the work brings the legal considerations in plans and extra-judicial recovery.

O trabalho tem por objetivo à análise jurídica do plano de recuperação e suas consequências práticas, questionando até que ponto o objetivo de um acordo imposto será alcançado, tendo em vista os diferentes interesses em jogo. A primeira parte é dedicada ao exame das disciplinas da recuperação, traçando um histórico evolutivo deste instrumento a partir da concordata. Neste ponto, são apresentadas as teorias quanto a sua natureza jurídica. A segunda parte, por sua vez, aponta breves considerações de como o direito alienígena disciplina a recuperação. Na terceira parte, o trabalho analisa a recuperação como jogo estratégico, pois existem riscos inerentes a sua execução. Isso porque, do ponto de vista econômico, o plano de recuperação, por ser contrato incompleto, impõe riscos, por portar variáveis não previstas, como por exemplo, a mudança de política econômica ou a crise financeira mundial. Assim sendo, o trabalho analisa as possibilidades de renegociação dos termos do plano, bem como as soluções que podem ser usadas quando da incompletude. Neste sentido, analisa os mecanismos da arbitragem, da governança coorporativa e da cláusula hardship, além dos princípios da boa-fé objetiva, função social do contrato, função social da empresa e teoria da imprevisão. Como a recuperação judicial e extrajudicial representam meios de reestruturação que beneficiam a coletividade de interessados: estando de um lado o devedor que pretende obter prazos para o cumprimento de suas obrigações; de outro lado os credores que visualizam uma forma de obter seus créditos, ainda existem outros (credores) que poderão discordar da proposta. Para sanar esta possibilidade (do credor buscar a solução individual de seus interesses em contraposição àqueles coletivos dos credores) a Lei 11.101/05 criou a modalidade impositiva, na qual se impõe aos dissidentes o acordo dos que aderiram voluntariamente. Por este motivo, há divergências quanto a natureza jurídica do plano de recuperação. Neste sentido, a quarta parte do trabalho traz considerações quanto a natureza jurídica dos planos de recuperação judicial e extrajudicial. / The aim of this work is assess the legal analysis of a judicial recovery plan and its practical consequences, questioning to what extent the objective of an agreement will be reached if come into force, given the different interests at stake. The first part deals with the consideration of the disciplines of recovery, tracing the evolutionary history of this instrument from a point of concordata. At this point, theories as to their legal nature are presented. The second part, in turn, brings brief considerations of how the foreign laws discipline the recovery. In the third part, the paper examines the recovery as a strategic game, since there are risks inherent in its execution. From an economic point of view, these risks arise from an incomplete contract carrying unforeseen variables, for instance, the change in the economic policy as well as the world wide financial crisis. So, the paper analyzes the possibilities of renegotiating the terms of the plan, as well as solutions that can be used when the incompleteness. In this sense, analyzing the mechanisms of arbitration, corporate governance and the hardship clause, in addition to the principles of objective good faith, the contract´s social function, the company\'s social function and theory of unpredictability. As the judicial and extrajudicial´s recovery represents means of restructuring, which benefits the collective of the people involved: on one side the debtor who wishes to obtain deadlines for compliance with its obligations, on the other side creditors who see a way to get their credits back, and also there are others (creditors) who may disagree with the proposal. To address this possibility (the creditor seeking the solution of his individual interests as opposed to those collective interests of creditors) Law 11.101/05 created the imposing form, which is imposed on dissidents, the agreement of those who joined voluntarily. For this reason, there are differences of opinion about the legal nature of the recovery plan. In this sense, the fourth part of the work brings the legal considerations in plans and extra-judicial recovery.

Правильность расчетов с дебиторами и кредиторами напрямую оказывает влияние на финансовую устойчивость предприятия, а это, соответственно, на развитие компании и привлечение новых клиентов. Система мониторинга расчетов представляет собой упорядоченную систему взаимодействующих, взаимосвязанных элементов, позволяющих сформировать учетно-аналитическое обеспечение бизнес-процессов коммерческой организации посредством сбора, регистрации, обобщения, анализа информации и осуществления контрольных действий в целях оценки рисков существенного ее искажения. Было предложено использование опыта методического обеспечения расчетных операций в соответствии с МСФО для осуществления мониторинга за дебиторской задолженностью российских предприятий в сфере ЖКХ. Предложен интерфейс модуля «Работа с должниками» для программы 1С, рассмотрена эффективность внедрения данного программного продукта. Фокусирование внимания на просроченной задолженности дает более конкретное понимание финансовой ситуации, так как для анализа берется сумма меньшая всей дебиторской задолженности, данное подробное раскрытие поможет пользователям бухгалтерской отчетности, особенно руководству принять правильные управленческие решения. / The correctness of settlements with debtors and creditors directly affects the financial stability of the enterprise, and this, respectively, on the development of the company and attracting new customers. The system of monitoring calculations is an ordered system of interacting, interrelated elements that allow you to create accounting and analytical support of business processes of a commercial organization through the collection, registration, synthesis, analysis of information and implementation of control actions in order to assess the risks of significant distortion. It was proposed to use the experience of methodological support of settlement operations in accordance with IFRS to monitor the accounts receivable of Russian enterprises in the field of housing and communal services. The interface of the module "Work with debtors" for the program 1C is offered, efficiency of introduction of this software is considered. Focusing on overdue accounts gives a more specific understanding of the financial situation, as the analysis takes a smaller amount of all receivables, this detailed disclosure will help users of financial statements, especially management to make the right management decisions.

Subsidiarité de l’action en enrichissement sans cause, vocation subsidiaire du droit commun, demande subsidiaire, subsidiarité de l’obligation des associés de société à risque illimité, etc. : la subsidiarité est récurrente en droit privé. Pourtant, le mécanisme qu’elle met en oeuvre n’est pas clairement perçu. La subsidiarité met de l’ordre dans le droit : elle est une technique de coordination d’éléments concurrents, qui subordonne à la défaillance de l’élément appelé premier l’accès à l’élément qualifié de subsidiaire. Tant que l’élément premier n’est pas défaillant, c’est-à-dire tant qu’il peut produire son effet juridique, l’élément subsidiaire est bloqué. La subsidiarité a pour finalité d’instaurer une hiérarchie entre les éléments concernés : elle affirme la primauté de l’élément premier, vu avec faveur, sur l’élément subsidiaire, qui est une solution de secours. Ce mécanisme trouve une application majeure en matière d’obligation. Une obligation est subsidiaire lorsqu’elle est subordonnée à la défaillance d’une autre obligation ; elle est ainsi affectée d’une condition suspensive. Le débiteur premier est celui dont le paiement normal est attendu, le débiteur subsidiaire celui dont l’intervention est vue comme pathologique. Le débiteur subsidiaire peut opposer toutes les exceptions qui attestent de ce que l’obligation première n’est pas défaillante. Pour agir contre le débiteur subsidiaire, le créancier doit établir cette défaillance, qui est définie de manière variable selon les hypothèses. L’obligation subsidiaire tient une place importante dans les opérations juridiques à trois personnes ; elle permet également de porter un regard nouveau sur la solidarité. / Subsidiarity of unjustified enrichment claims, subsidiarity of the lex fori, subsidiary pleadings, subsidiary obligation of the members of companies with unlimited liability, etc. : subsidiarity is recurrent in private law. However, its mechanism is not clearly understood. Subsidiarity creates order in law. It is a coordination technique of rival elements, which makes access to the subsidiary element subject to the default of the first element. As long as the first element can produce its effect, the subsidiary element is blocked. The purpose of subsidiarity is to create a hierarchy between those elements: it states the primacy of the first element, seen with favor, on the subsidiary element, which is considered a backup. This mechanism is useful in contract law. An obligation is subsidiary when it is subject to the default of another obligation; it matches the pattern of a conditional obligation. Normal payment is expected from the debtor of the primary obligation; the intervention of the subsidiary debtor is seen as pathological. In order to sue the subsidiary debtor, the creditor must prove that the primary obligation is in default. The former can invoke all the exceptions which prove that this event, which can be defined in a variety of ways, has not occurred. The concept of subsidiary obligations is important in legal operations involving three persons, and encourages to reconsider our understanding of solidary obligations.

Conséquence de l’insuffisance du traitement judiciaire des difficultés des entreprises, le droit de la prévention connaît un attrait de plus en plus important. En droit français et en droit Ohada, la loi du 26 juillet 2005 et l’acte uniforme portant procédure collectives d’apurement du passif ont mis l’accent sur les solutions négociées en vue de redresser la courbe des nombreuses défaillances d’entreprise. Malgré la richesse de l’ensemble des systèmes de prévention au regard du nombre important des mesures incitatives instituées en faveur du débiteur et des créanciers, la confrontation du système français de prévention et du système Ohada de prévention appelle à des résultats mitigés. Même si des deux systèmes le système français de prévention apparaît le plus structuré et le mieux organisé et donc appelé à servir de modèle au droit Ohada, force est de constater que l’objectif de sauvetage poursuivi par les deux législateurs est loin d’être atteint. Dans les faits, le nombre des défaillances d’entreprise augmente de manière considérable, ce qui traduit à l’évidence le caractère inefficace des différents mécanismes juridiques de prévention proposés. Par conséquent, une réforme de l’ensemble des dispositifs de prévention dans les deux ordres juridiques s’impose inéluctablement. Au delà, de l’approche comparative qu’impose ce sujet, il a surtout pour ambition de s’inscrire dans une approche nouvelle du droit des entreprises en difficultés qui prône désormais la contractualisation de la matière afin de la rendre efficace / Due to the inadequate judicial processing of difficulties encountered by enterprises today, the right to prevention is becoming more and more attractive. In France as in Ohada, the law of July 26 2005 and the uniform act concerning collective procedures of passive clearance have stressed the importance of the negociated solutions in order to straighten the curve of the numerous company failures. On account of incitative mesures in favor of debtors and creditors, the confrontation of the French prevention system and the Ohada prevention system have limited results despite the quality of the various prevention systems. Even though the French prevention system, which appears to be better structured and better organized, serves as a model to the juidicial system of Ohada, it must be noted that both legislators are far from achieving their goals. In fact, company failures are increasing rapidly, highlighting the ineffectiveness of the judicial prevention mecanisms that have been proposed until now. Consequently, a reform of all prevention devices in both judicial orders is required. Moreover, the comparative approach set by this matter's principle aim is to develop a new approach in company law which henceforth advocates contractualization of the matter in order to make it more effective.

<p>The principle purpose of this thesis has been to study and analyse the conception of men and women in business bankruptcy during the 20th century. The analysis is built on a theoretical gender perspective and, combining this view and business and bankruptcy research, the thesis has focused on five themes: business networks, bank contacts, business competence, business characteristics and finally bankruptcy causes. These themes have been in focus when analysing bankruptcies in Uppsala 1920-1939, 1988, 1992 and 1996. A questionnair- and interview study with receivers active in Sweden 2001 has also been carried out. From the bankruptcy cases that have been studied, no specific gender differences have really been discovered. There were some variations between men and women, but it is very hard to claim that these are related to the sex of the debtor more than to the branch or to the individuals. Changes from the inter-war period to the latter part of the 20th century are in these respects also small. The image that the receivers gave through the questionnaire and interview study indicates on the other hand that there existed a conception that men and women seemed different as business owners. It is obvious that there were many receivers who thought that women were different from men in a situation of business bankruptcy, even though several of them stated that they did not beleive in any gender differences.</p>

The principle purpose of this thesis has been to study and analyse the conception of men and women in business bankruptcy during the 20th century. The analysis is built on a theoretical gender perspective and, combining this view and business and bankruptcy research, the thesis has focused on five themes: business networks, bank contacts, business competence, business characteristics and finally bankruptcy causes. These themes have been in focus when analysing bankruptcies in Uppsala 1920-1939, 1988, 1992 and 1996. A questionnair- and interview study with receivers active in Sweden 2001 has also been carried out. From the bankruptcy cases that have been studied, no specific gender differences have really been discovered. There were some variations between men and women, but it is very hard to claim that these are related to the sex of the debtor more than to the branch or to the individuals. Changes from the inter-war period to the latter part of the 20th century are in these respects also small. The image that the receivers gave through the questionnaire and interview study indicates on the other hand that there existed a conception that men and women seemed different as business owners. It is obvious that there were many receivers who thought that women were different from men in a situation of business bankruptcy, even though several of them stated that they did not beleive in any gender differences.