The focus of this discussion is whether there is still the need to enforce the restraint of trade agreements in their pre-Constitutional form. The dawn of the constitutional era has necessitated a re-examination of common law with a view to establishing whether the balance created by the latter (regarding this field) still exists. The Bill of Rights has obviously raised some doubts regarding the equilibrium desired between employer and employee interests. Section 22 of the Constitution is to the effect that everyone must be free to secure employment (as a fundamental right), whereas the common law restraint of trade agreements impose some bars to the operation of the said right. It is common course that the Constitution is more superior to common law, what remains a debateable issue is whether there are any reasonable limits that must be considered to justify the disregard of the Constitution. Serious arguments around the direct and indirect application of the Bill of Rights still persist and failure to resolve them would have the effect of excluding or weakening the application of the Bill to disputes arising in this field. In common law the enforcement of restraint agreements is sine qua non for the greater good of protecting the sanctity of contracts. Contractual obligations must be fulfilled unless it would be unreasonable to enforce same. The question of the onus to prove unreasonableness, which lies with the employee, turns to place an onerous burden on the employee. This coupled with the employee’s weaker bargaining power raises doubts as to whether the employee is in a better position to conclude a restraint of trade agreement. Common law does not consider or accommodate this concern in that its main object is the fulfilment of the agreement. It is believed that the Constitution has ushered in a new approach which focuses mainly on the fairness of the agreement itself. The enforcement of the agreement must pass the constitutional muster built in section 22 in order to ensure that there is equilibrium between the employer (the restrainor) and employee (the restrainee) interests. In the end this discussion explores whether it is justifiable to subject the Right to work (as provided by the Constitution) to the common law restraint which is opposed to the constitutional right. The circumstances under which the exclusion of section 22 is condonable are interrogated within the framework of conflicting case law. / LLM (Labour Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The focus of this discussion is whether there is still the need to enforce the restraint of trade agreements in their pre-Constitutional form. The dawn of the constitutional era has necessitated a re-examination of common law with a view to establishing whether the balance created by the latter (regarding this field) still exists. The Bill of Rights has obviously raised some doubts regarding the equilibrium desired between employer and employee interests. Section 22 of the Constitution is to the effect that everyone must be free to secure employment (as a fundamental right), whereas the common law restraint of trade agreements impose some bars to the operation of the said right. It is common course that the Constitution is more superior to common law, what remains a debateable issue is whether there are any reasonable limits that must be considered to justify the disregard of the Constitution. Serious arguments around the direct and indirect application of the Bill of Rights still persist and failure to resolve them would have the effect of excluding or weakening the application of the Bill to disputes arising in this field. In common law the enforcement of restraint agreements is sine qua non for the greater good of protecting the sanctity of contracts. Contractual obligations must be fulfilled unless it would be unreasonable to enforce same. The question of the onus to prove unreasonableness, which lies with the employee, turns to place an onerous burden on the employee. This coupled with the employee’s weaker bargaining power raises doubts as to whether the employee is in a better position to conclude a restraint of trade agreement. Common law does not consider or accommodate this concern in that its main object is the fulfilment of the agreement. It is believed that the Constitution has ushered in a new approach which focuses mainly on the fairness of the agreement itself. The enforcement of the agreement must pass the constitutional muster built in section 22 in order to ensure that there is equilibrium between the employer (the restrainor) and employee (the restrainee) interests. In the end this discussion explores whether it is justifiable to subject the Right to work (as provided by the Constitution) to the common law restraint which is opposed to the constitutional right. The circumstances under which the exclusion of section 22 is condonable are interrogated within the framework of conflicting case law. / LLM (Labour Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The effective management of a strike is generally a challenging phenomenon which impacts on employers, employees and the general public. The main purpose of this study was to analyse the legal implications of employees’ participation in an unprotected strike. The study also explored requirements for a strike to be protected in compliance with the prescribed legislation. From the literary review, cases and legislation, it became clear that compliance plays a key role when a consideration is taken by employees to take part in a strike during dispute resolution. In analysing the legal consequences for participating in an unprotected strike, a finding was made that employers in the end have an upper hand in that when all due processes and procedures are followed, they are empowered to dismiss employees. Legislation and international standards form the cornerstone upon which dispute resolution mechanisms and the rights of employers and employees are derived from. / Mercantile Law / LL.M. (Labour law)

Thesis (LLM (Public Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The first part of this thesis deals with the right of lateral and subjacent support and explains how it should be applied in South African law. The thesis illustrates how the neighbour law principles of lateral support were incorrectly extended to govern conflicts pertaining to subjacent support that arose in South African mining law. From 1911 right up to 2007, these two clearly distinguishable concepts were treated as synonymous principles in both academic writing and case law. The thesis plots the historical development of this extension of lateral support principles to subjacent support conflicts. In doing so, it examines the main source of South Africa’s law of support, namely English law. The thesis then shows how the Supreme Court of Appeal in Anglo Operations Ltd v Sandhurst Estates (Pty) Ltd 2007 (2) SA 363 (SCA) illustrated how the English law doctrine of subjacent support, with all its attendant ramifications, could not be useful in resolving disputes that arise between a land surface owner and a mineral rights holder in South African mining law. The second of half of the thesis investigates the constitutional implications of the Supreme Court of Appeal’s decision in Anglo Operations in light of the systemic changes introduced by the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002. In terms of this new Act, all the mineral and petroleum resources of South Africa are the common heritage of the people of South Africa, and the state is the custodian thereof. This means that landowners are no longer involved in the granting of mineral rights to subsequent holders. In light of the Anglo Operations decision, landowners in the new dispensation of mineral exploitation face the danger of losing the use and enjoyment of some/all their land. The thesis therefore examines the implications of the statutory provisions in South African legislation (new and old) that have/had an impact on the relationship between landowners and mineral right holders with regard to the question of subjacent support, as well as the implications of the Anglo Operations decision for cases where mineral rights have been granted under the statutory framework. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die eerste deel van die tesis handel oor die reg op sydelingse en oppervlakstut en hoe dit in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg toegepas behoort te word. Die tesis wys hoe die bureregbeginsels rakende sydelingse stut verkeerdelik uitgebrei is na konflikte rakende oppervlakstut wat in die Suid-Afrikaanse mynreg ontstaan het. Vanaf 1911 en tot in 2007 is hierdie twee duidelik verskillende konsepte in sowel akademiese geskrifte en in die regspraak as sinonieme behandel. Die tesis sit die historiese ontwikkeling van die uitbreiding van laterale stut-beginsels na oppervlakstut-konflikte uiteen. In die proses word die hoofbron van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg ten aansien van steun, naamlik die Engelse reg, ondersoek. Die tesis wys uit hoe die Hoogste Hof van Appèl in Anglo Operations Ltd v Sandhurst Estates (Pty) Ltd 2007 (2) SA 363 (SCA) beslis het dat die Engelse leerstuk van oppervlakstut met al sy meegaande implikasies nie in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg sinvol aangewend kan word om dispute wat tussen die oppervlakeienaar van grond en die mineraalreghouer ontstaan, op te los nie. Die tweede helfte van die tesis ondersoek die grondwetlike implikasies van die Hoogste Hof van Appèl se beslissing in Anglo Operations in die lig van die sistemiese wysigings wat deur die Wet op Ontwikkeling van Minerale en Petroleumhulpbronne 28 van 2002 tot stand gebring is. Ingevolge die nuwe Wet is alle mineraal- en petroleumhulpbronne die gemeenskaplike erfenis van alle mense van Suid-Afrika en die staat is die bewaarder daarvan. Dit beteken dat grondeienaars nie meer betrokke is by die toekenning van mineraalregte aan houers daarvan nie. In die lig van die Anglo Operations-beslissing loop grondeienaars die gevaar om die voordeel en gebruik van al of dele van hulle grond te verloor. Die tesis ondersoek daarom die implikasies van verskillende bepalings in Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing (oud en nuut) wat ‘n impak op die verhouding tussen die grondeienaar en die houer van die mineraalregte het, sowel as die implikasies van Anglo Operations vir gevalle waar mineraalregte onder die nuwe statutêre raamwerk en toegeken is.

Cette étude aborde les questionnements relatifs à l’homologation et à l’entérinement d’une entente de règlement amiable conclue dans le cadre des processus de médiation ou de conciliation administrative. L’étude vise d’abord à clarifier les concepts en définissant précisément la terminologie privilégiée. La mise en œuvre des demandes est ensuite analysée au regard de la compétence des tribunaux administratifs et de celle des tribunaux de droit commun à l’égard d’un accord de conciliation ou d’une transaction conclu dans le cadre d’un litige administratif. Les formalités relatives à la présentation de la demande sont exposées. Les tests de conformité à la loi et à l’ordre public sont ensuite circonscrits pour terminer par un examen des conséquences de l’homologation ou de l’entérinement de l’entente sur les recours ultérieurs possibles tels que le recours en révision administrative ou le recours en révision judiciaire. / This study examines the homologation or approval of a settlement agreement reached under administrative mediation or conciliation. The first part aims to clarify the concepts by defining the preferred terminology in a comprehensive way. The implementation of these applications is then analyzed according to the jurisdiction of administrative tribunals and courts of law with respect to a conciliation agreement or a transaction concluded under administrative proceedings. The formalities relating to the submission of the demand are exposed. The tests for compliance with the law and with public order are then circumscribed to complete with an examination of the consequences of the agreement on eventual remedies, as administrative review or judicial review.

<p>Трговина спада у најстарије привредне активности на основу којих се врши размјена добара са циљем остварења профита. Она није само у функцији међународне размјене роба, него представља један од најзначајнијих фактора развоја друштва. Она је истовремено и творац норми које се баштине у најстарије изворе људске цивилизације. На овај начин она је директно учествовала на настанак права и правне науке. Велику улогу у&nbsp; развоју трговине, нарочито у периоду глобализације међународних економских односа и међународног тржишта су имале међународне организације од којих посебно мјесто припада Свјетској трговинској организацији.<br />Националне привреде различитих држава се међусобно повезују кроз међународне трговинске односе, а правна регулатива представља незаобилазну претпоставку њихове реализације.<br />Руководна идеја СТО је оличена у читавом правном систему норми које прије свега почивају на слободи трговине и прокламацији система недискриминације и једнакости свих учесника на тржишту.<br />У функцији остварења ове&nbsp; идеје постоји читав низ начела од којих централно мјесто заузимају слобода међународне трговине, системи најповлашћеније нације и националног третмана, монопол, принцип преференцијалног третмана, начело недискриминације, начело заштите националног тржишта, начело пропорционалности и многа друга, а без њиховог постојања би било немогуће замислити организовану слободну трговину.<br />Стандард једнаког третмана представља средство реализације једнаке конкурентске шансе свим субјектима на свјетском тржишту, а забрана дискриминације оличена у систему најповлашћеније нације и националног третмана представља камен темељац за реализацију система изједначења субјеката спољнотрговинског пословања, успостављања и даљег развоја међународних трговинских односа.<br />Особине стандарда једнаког третмана у праву СТО, данас, ваља посматрати у контексту заштите интереса очекивања као општег правног постулата реализације односа и сарадње њених чланица. Овакав &bdquo;интерес очекивања&ldquo; &ndash; &bdquo;expectation interest&ldquo;, заслужује правну заштиту, а њу&nbsp; обезбјеђује право СТО, активирањем механизма рјешавања спорова. Ови механизми истовремено представљају и кључни камен темељац очувања СТО, без које не би било могуће замислити одвијање међународне трговине.</p> / <p>Trgovina spada u najstarije privredne aktivnosti na osnovu kojih se vrši razmjena dobara sa ciljem ostvarenja profita. Ona nije samo u funkciji međunarodne razmjene roba, nego predstavlja jedan od najznačajnijih faktora razvoja društva. Ona je istovremeno i tvorac normi koje se baštine u najstarije izvore ljudske civilizacije. Na ovaj način ona je direktno učestvovala na nastanak prava i pravne nauke. Veliku ulogu u&nbsp; razvoju trgovine, naročito u periodu globalizacije međunarodnih ekonomskih odnosa i međunarodnog tržišta su imale međunarodne organizacije od kojih posebno mjesto pripada Svjetskoj trgovinskoj organizaciji.<br />Nacionalne privrede različitih država se međusobno povezuju kroz međunarodne trgovinske odnose, a pravna regulativa predstavlja nezaobilaznu pretpostavku njihove realizacije.<br />Rukovodna ideja STO je oličena u čitavom pravnom sistemu normi koje prije svega počivaju na slobodi trgovine i proklamaciji sistema nediskriminacije i jednakosti svih učesnika na tržištu.<br />U funkciji ostvarenja ove&nbsp; ideje postoji čitav niz načela od kojih centralno mjesto zauzimaju sloboda međunarodne trgovine, sistemi najpovlašćenije nacije i nacionalnog tretmana, monopol, princip preferencijalnog tretmana, načelo nediskriminacije, načelo zaštite nacionalnog tržišta, načelo proporcionalnosti i mnoga druga, a bez njihovog postojanja bi bilo nemoguće zamisliti organizovanu slobodnu trgovinu.<br />Standard jednakog tretmana predstavlja sredstvo realizacije jednake konkurentske šanse svim subjektima na svjetskom tržištu, a zabrana diskriminacije oličena u sistemu najpovlašćenije nacije i nacionalnog tretmana predstavlja kamen temeljac za realizaciju sistema izjednačenja subjekata spoljnotrgovinskog poslovanja, uspostavljanja i daljeg razvoja međunarodnih trgovinskih odnosa.<br />Osobine standarda jednakog tretmana u pravu STO, danas, valja posmatrati u kontekstu zaštite interesa očekivanja kao opšteg pravnog postulata realizacije odnosa i saradnje njenih članica. Ovakav &bdquo;interes očekivanja&ldquo; &ndash; &bdquo;expectation interest&ldquo;, zaslužuje pravnu zaštitu, a nju&nbsp; obezbjeđuje pravo STO, aktiviranjem mehanizma rješavanja sporova. Ovi mehanizmi istovremeno predstavljaju i ključni kamen temeljac očuvanja STO, bez koje ne bi bilo moguće zamisliti odvijanje međunarodne trgovine.</p> / <p>Trade is one of the oldest economic activities of exchange of goods with the aim to gain profit.Its main purpose is not only international exchange of goods, but is also one of the most important factors of social development.It is also a designer of norms which are believed to be the oldest sources of human civilization. Thus, it has directly influenced the creation of law and legal science.In the development of trade, especially in the period of globalization of international economic relations and international trade, an important role has been played by international organisations, especially World Trade Organisation.<br />National economies of different countries are interrelated through international trade, and legal jurisprudence represents inevitable assumption for their realisation.<br />The leading idea of WTO is reflected in the entire legal system of norms which are primarily based on free trade and non-discrimination system and equality of all market holders.<br />The realization of the idea is supported by a number of principles where the central place is held by free international trade, most- favoured nation systems and national treatment, monopole, preference treatment principle, non-discrimination principle, protection of national market principle, proportionality principle and many others, and without their existence it would be impossible to imagine an organized free trade.<br />The equal treatment standard represents the means of realization of equal competition opportunities for all subjects at the world market, and ban on discrimination reflected in the most-favoured nation system and national treatment represents a foundation stone for the realization of the foreign trade subject equation system, establishment and further development of international trade relations.<br />The characteristics of equal treatment standard in WTO law today should be viewed in the context of expectation interest protection as a general legal principle of realization of relations and co-operation of its members.Such &bdquo;expectation interest&ldquo;deserves legal protection, provided by WTO, by activating the dispute resolution mechanisms.These mechanisms also represent a key stepping stone of the preservation of WTO, without which it would be impossible to imagine the international trade activities.</p>

My thesis explores the roles in Albanian nation-building of the Kanun of Lekë Dukagjin, an early-twentieth century codification of northern-Albanian customary practices, and the Pajtimi i Gjaqeve, a late-twentieth century movement to conciliate blood feuds in Kosovo. To understand them, we need to know: what both were, in their own terms; their significance; and how they relate to other aspects of nation-building, and comparative examples. I draw on participant-observation fieldwork, archive work and extensive interviews. Nation-building is necessarily complicated and the Albanian case particularly so. The existence of an Albanian nation was contested by neighbouring peoples, and its characteristics, by Albanians themselves. In this complex context, the text of the Kanun, and the Pajtimi i Gjaqeve, give us good insights into Albanian understandings of the nation, and associated nation-building activities, at pivotal points in national history. While the nation-building projects of the region had many elements in common, prominent ideas of a ‘national’ legal tradition are a distinctive aspect of the Albanian case. Both the Kanun of Lekë Dukagjin and the Pajtimi i Gjaqeve need to be understood as aspects of nation-building. In the context of a crumbling Ottoman Empire, by presenting Albanian customary practices in the form of a legal code, the Albanian codifier made claims about the contents and the people from whom they came. The Kanun demonstrated the existence of a distinct people with a tradition of self-governance and mediation; and made significant contributions to the crucial process of language standardisation. In the context of the 1990s break-up of Yugoslavia, ideas of an Albanian legal tradition re-emerged in Kosovo, in the Pajtimi i Gjaqeve which presented intra-Albanian disputes as national concerns, and drew on traditional values and customary practices to effect conciliations. Subsequently, the Movement itself has become a national resource, through reference to which important ideas about the nation are expressed.

Avant-propos: La résolution de conflits s’est installée dans les cursus universitaires comme une discipline à part entière sinon comme une orientation au sein de plusieurs sciences sociales. En effet, ce champ d’étude fait de plus en plus l’objet de réflexions en sciences politiques, en sociologie, en anthropologie, etc, et ce, de par l’interdisciplinarité des questionnements qui en relèvent. Toutefois, la dimension religieuse, souvent considérée comme source de conflits, est quasi inexistante lorsqu’il est question d’approches de résolution. Nous nous proposons donc d’examiner la solha, une pratique proche orientale au sein de laquelle le fait religieux est une composante essentielle à la réconciliation escomptée. Note concernant la translittération: Les termes provenant de l’arabe feront l’objet d’une translittération phonétique basée sur le français. Notez que les translittérations en langue française sont différentes de celle en langue anglaise. Par exemple, le terme solha trouvera son équivalent anglais dans le terme sulha (d’où la différence d’orthographe entre le contenu de cette étude et les citations qui proviennent d’articles anglophones). De plus, notez que le genre (féminin, masculin) des termes translittérés reprendra celui de la langue d’origine, l’arabe. Ainsi, solha sera féminin, jaha aussi, etc… Finalement, pour des raisons de clarté, les termes translittérés seront tous en italique dans le texte. / La solha (« réconciliation » en arabe) est une méthode de résolution de conflits millénaire provenant du milieu tribal proche oriental. Bien au delà du simple règlement de litige, cette réconciliation vise à rétablir l’harmonie au sein des tissus sociaux déchirés. Habilitée à traiter toutes sortes de conflits, de la simple forme pénale aux cas criminels les plus complexes (cycles de vengeances et de vendetta), la solha s’est adaptée à des milieux très différents. La cause principale de son efficacité semble être l’universalité de ses principes fondamentaux (le pardon, la nécessité d’une réinsertion sociale du coupable, la satisfaction des victimes, etc.) ainsi que l’adéquation de ses rituels de réconciliation aux mœurs des populations qui la pratiquent. Ce mémoire cherche à approfondir notre compréhension de cette approche traditionnelle afin d’enrichir nos connaissances et moyens en termes de résolution de conflits contemporains. A cette fin, seront isolés les éléments fondamentaux qui font l’efficacité de cette méthode. Ceux-ci constitueront un modèle théorique minimal de la solha qui permettra d’entamer, à ce stade de l’étude, une réflexion quant à la possibilité de transposer de tels acquis à des milieux d’interventions nouveaux. / The sulha (“reconciliation” in Arabic) is a thousand years old conflict resolution method used in the near east tribal world. Far beyond a simple mediation, its objective is a solid reconstruction of the destroyed social network. Habilitated to deal with all kinds of conflicts, from simple penal cases to long lasting vendettas, the sulha process has proven its usefulness in very different social milieu. The most evident reason for this success has been its dual composition: fundamental principles that seem universal (forgiveness, social reinsertion of the guilty, satisfaction of the victims, etc.) and adaptive rituals that fit into people’s customs. This thesis seeks to enrich our knowledge and means in terms of conflict resolution by trying to reveal the mechanisms that make this method so efficient. The main objective is to compose a basic theoretical model of the sulha that would open a reflection about the possibility of transposing this model to new intervention contexts.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal. / Le devoir de coopération s'affirme comme un nouveau concept destiné à faciliter le bon usage des accords contractuels. En élargissant les principes de bonne foi ou d'intérêt commun, il jouxte la notion d'affectio societatis du droit des sociétés. Ce concept s'est particulièrement développé pour appuyer la mondialisation des échanges économiques aussi bien comme guide des parties contractantes dans la bonne administration de leurs relations que comme mode d'interprétation ou de règlement des différends. Le devoir de coopération est un souffle nouveau destiné à rendre implicite une attitude coopérative et non plus antagoniste des parties. Le domaine de.la franchise internationale est une , bonne illustration de ce nouveau concept: les parties au contrat de franchise internationale doivent s'adapter au marché local par exemple, ce qui nécessite à l'évidence une attitude entrepreneuriale coopérative. Le devoir de coopération peut être conçu comme une notion clef de la bonne exécution contractuelle. Il est en tout cas déjà consacré comme tel en droit contractuel international où il agit comme source de droit supplétive lorsque la lettre du contrat s'avère insuffisante. / The duty to cooperate is emerging as a new legal concept intended to facilitate the performance of contractual agreements. By broadening the principles of good faith or common interest, the notion of cooperation could be seen as analogical to the notion of affectio societatis in the right of societies? This notion has developed in particular to support the globalization of economic exchanges, not only as a guide for contracting parties in the proper administration of their relationship, but also as a mode of interpretation or for dispute resolution. The duty to cooperate is an innovative notion designed to create an implicit cooperative, no longer antagonistic , attitude among the parties. This is could be best demonstrated by examining its development in the field of international franchising : for example, the parties to an international franchising agreement must adjust their business plan to the local market and culture, which obviously necessitates a cooperative entrepreneurial attitude. The dut y to cooperate should be understood as a key element in the proper performance of contractual agreements. It has already been acknowledged as such normative compone nt in international contractual law where it serves as a suppletive law in those cases where the letter of the contract is insufficient.

Contrat par lequel les parties terminent une contestation née ou préviennent une contestation à naître, la transaction présente a priori une utilité remarquable pour la matière pénale. L'identification de la logique transactionnelle suppose toutefois que de tels procédés répressifs mettent un terme définitif au litige et ce au moyen de concessions de la part de l'auteur des faits et des autorités ou administrations chargées des poursuites. Seules la transaction pénale et la composition pénale revêtent ces qualités. Une telle transposition implique que la matière en cause puisse connaître d'un règlement des suites de l'infraction déterminé par les parties, hors du juge, mais aussi d'un règlement définitif. Les caractéristiques des alternatives aux poursuites témoignent alors de la réception de la technique transactionnelle dans la matière pénale. Ce constat ne peut pour autant suffire, la transposition de la transaction suppose également l'insertion d'un contrat dans le processus répressif. La mise à l'épreuve de la transaction à la matière pénale conduit à relever certains obstacles, tenant au consentement de l'auteur des faits ou encore à l'indisponibilité de l'action publique. Cette opposition conduit à une adaptation de la transaction à la matière pénale. Les alternatives aux poursuites révèlent l'existence de mesures à caractère répressif, proposées à l'auteur des faits et acceptées par lui dans un cadre déjudiciarisé : les sanctions transactionnelles. La reconnaissance de cette catégorie spécifique de sanctions permet d'entrevoir un certain nombre d'améliorations, afin que ces sanctions transactionnelles soient le fruit d'un accord équitable / Contract with which parties settle or prevent a complaint, the compromise seems to be an outstanding and useful tool in criminal process. However, the identification of the settlement approach presupposes that repressive processes permit to settle the dispute definitively, with concessions from the perpetrators and the Authorities. Only two mechanisms of criminal settlement take on these qualities. Such adaptation implies that the parties could settle the consequences of an offence, without any involvement of a magistrate, but also definitively. The characteristics of the alternative prosecution measures attest the use of the settlement technique in criminal law. However, this aknowledgment is not enough since the transposition of the compromise settlement requires also to introduce a contract in the prosecution process. The comparison of the compromise contract with criminal matter reveals an opposition, some difficulties due to the consent of the perpetrators or Public prosecution. These difficulties necessary lead the settlement to be adapted to this matter. Without the contractual side, the alternative prosecution measures are considered as repressive measures, proposed to the perpetrator and accepted by him outside the formal judicial frame : settlement sanctions. Recognition of this specific sanctions category allowed improvements in order to achieve the settlement sanctions are the result of a fair agreement