Female athletes exhibit three- to six-fold greater incidence of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury relative to their male counterparts. The increased risk appears to stem from interactions between several risk factors, that can roughly be categorized as anatomic, biomechanical, hormonal, and neuromuscular. Neuromuscular risk factors have recently gained a greater focus, and include differences in the timing and magnitude of activation of lower extremity and trunk musculature. In addition to neuromuscular risk factors, the incidence of ACL injury is not evenly distributed across the menstrual cycle, suggesting that hormonal fluctuations may influence neuromuscular control. Finally, it is known that even well-trained athletes experience decrements in performance and postural control when forced to attend to multiple sensory stimuli, which is common in many sports. PURPOSE: To explore neuromuscular differences in the ways healthy and ACL-injured women respond to a secondary task requiring fine motor control and sustained mental focus (typing task). Our investigation encompassed three broad aims. First, we sought to determine whether ACL-injured individuals demonstrated similar reflex profiles to healthy individuals, as well as to determine whether the ACL-involved limb was similar to its uninvolved counterpart. Our second aim was to determine whether the typing task resulted in attenuated Hoffmann (H) reflex amplitudes, and to investigate whether any observed changes were similar in healthy and ACL-injured groups. Finally, our third broad aim was to utilize more complex H reflex analysis techniques to determine whether differences in spinal excitability existed at different points in the menstrual cycle. METHODS: Thirty nine recreationally active women (20 with prior unilateral noncontact ACL injury: 24.0 ± 4.5 years; 23.8 ± 4.5 kg•m⁻²; 4.1 ± 2.6 years post-injury; 19 with no history of knee injury: 23.8 ± 4.5 years; 23.1 ± 2.3 kg•m⁻²) agreed to participate, and were tested during days 2-5 (follicular phase) of the menstrual cycle. A sub-set of this original group (n=8; 24.0 ± 4.8 years; 22.0 ± 2.1 kg•m⁻²) also agreed to return for a second testing session 24-96 hours after ovulation (early luteal phase), in order to assess H reflex differences across the menstrual cycle. During each testing session, H reflex testing was used to explore spinal-level control mechanisms of the lower extremity musculature under both Rest and Task conditions. In the control group, the dominant limb was tested (CON-D) while in the ACL group, both the uninvolved (ACL-UN) and involved (ACL-INV) limbs were assessed. Differences between groups (Control vs. ACL) and within-groups (ACL-UN vs. ACL-INV) were explored. RESULTS: At rest, H reflex parameters in ACL-INV were generally similar to ACL-UN and to CON-D. However, differences in presynaptic inhibition were apparent in ACL-INV that imply reduced reflex plasticity. During the typing task, both the Control and ACL groups experienced attenuated H reflex parameters. In the sub-set of participants who were tested twice during the menstrual cycle, a significant increase in presynaptic inhibition was observed during the early luteal phase compared to the follicular phase. CONCLUSION: While individuals with prior ACL injury display similar H reflex profiles to healthy individuals, the ACL-involved limb may demonstrate less reflex plasticity in response to environmental changes. This lack of plasticity may potentially increase the risk of re-injury. In addition, an upper extremity task requiring fine motor control and sustained mental focus attenuates the H reflex in both groups. This attenuation has implications for lower-extremity neuromuscular control in dual-task environments. Finally, the increase in presynaptic inhibition observed during the early luteal phase may provide insight into why ACL injuries are not evenly distributed across the menstrual cycle. / Graduation date: 2012

Die Zunahme technologischer Innovationen in unserem Alltag bietet uns neue Chancen und Herausforderungen - auch als Autofahrer. Wenngleich die breitere Verfügbarkeit und Funktionsvielfalt von sowohl Fahrerinformations- (Human Machine Interface, HMI) und -assistenzsystemen als auch mobilen Endgeräten der Erfüllung von Nutzerbedürfnissen dienen und bestenfalls der Fahrerablenkung entgegenwirken sollen, wird der Fahrer durch diese nicht notwendigerweise bei der Fahraufgabe unterstützt. Die Anforderungen an die Informationsverarbeitung steigen hingegen, gleichzeitig besteht die Versuchung die Aufmerksamkeit nicht-fahrrelevanten Tätigkeiten zuzuwenden. Fahrerablenkung ist seit jeher Thema der Verkehrsforschung, denn die Ablenkung von der Fahraufgabe kann schwerwiegende Konsequenzen haben. Innerhalb der Interaktion von Fahrer, Fahrzeug und Umwelt spielt das HMI zur sicheren Erfüllung der primären Fahraufgabe hinsichtlich des Stabilisierens, Manövrierens und Navigierens eine essenzielle Rolle. Eine fahrsituationsabhängige Anpassung der dargestellten Informationen kann während dieser Interaktion variierender Anforderungen eine Unterstützung für den Fahrer darstellen. Die vorliegende Dissertation hatte die Identifikation einer Gestaltungslösung für zukünftige Fahrerinformationssysteme, welche eine sichere und komfortable Nutzung während des Fahrens erlauben, zum Ziel. Hierfür wurde der nutzerzentrierte Gestaltprozess (User-Centred Design, UCD, DIN EN ISO 9241-210, 2010) verfolgt. Im ersten Schritt, den Vor-Studien, wurden der Kontext und die Nutzeranforderungen in der Interaktion mit fahrfremden Tätigkeiten in einem explorativen Ansatz untersucht. Am häufigsten gaben die Fahrer an, ihr Smartphone während der Fahrt zur Navigation und Kommunikation zu nutzen. Die Bereitschaft sich einer fahrfremden Tätigkeit zuzuwenden, war maßgeblich von der Modalität dieser Tätigkeit in Interaktion mit dem aktuellen Fahrszenario abhängig. Insbesondere der Straßentyp beeinflusste die Entscheidung. Die berichtete Bereitschaft zu fahrfremden Tätigkeiten wurde im zweiten Schritt des UCDs in einer Fahrsimulatorstudie, Studie I, untersucht. Sowohl für visuell-manuelle als auch kognitiv- auditive Nebentätigkeiten war die zuvor berichtete Nutzungsbereitschaft Prädiktor für das Fahrererleben und -verhalten. In Fahrszenarien, in denen die Bereitschaft für Nebentätigkeiten gering war, wurde eine höhere Beanspruchung wahrgenommen. Die Reaktionszeiten für die visuell-manuelle Aufgabe stiegen in Fahrszenarien geringer Bereitschaft. Für kognitiv-auditive Aufgaben wurden geringere Spurabweichungen und Geschwindigkeitsvarianzen in Fahrszenarien hoher Bereitschaft gefunden. Diese Befunde flossen in die Gestaltung erster adaptiver HMIs ein, Schritt drei des UCDs, und wurden im vierten Schritt in einem Fahrsimulator gegen ein statisches sowie ein konfigurierbares HMI getestet, Studie II. Abhängig von der Komplexität des Fahrszenarios wurde die Informationsmenge der adaptiven HMIs erhöht bzw. reduziert. Keines der getesteten Konzepte beeinträchtigte die Bedienbarkeit des Systems oder das Fahrverhalten und Blickverhalten. Die adaptiven und das statische HMI unterschieden sich nicht hinsichtlich der subjektiven Beurteilungen und der Verhaltensmetriken. Das konfigurierbare HMI war den adaptiven und dem statischem hinsichtlich der User Experience (UX), Beanspruchung, dem Bedienkomfort und der Akzeptanz überlegen und zog weniger Aufmerksamkeit auf das Mittelkonsolendisplay. Im Rahmen des UCDs wurden die adaptiven HMIs in einem iterativen dritten und vierten Schritt auf Basis der Ergebnisse der Studie II modifiziert und in einer Realfahrtstudie evaluiert, Studie III. Die adaptiven HMIs wurden gegen ein reduziertes, ein informationsreiches, und ein kontrollierbares HMI getestet. Einhergehend mit den Ergebnissen aus Studie II beeinträchtigte keines der Konzepte die Systembedienbarkeit oder das Fahr- und Blickverhalten. Alle Konzepte wurden gleichermaßen hoch in der UX und dem Bedienkomfort bewertet. Die Akzeptanz für das kontrollierbare Konzept war höher als für die adaptiven Konzepte. Das informationsreiche HMI erzeugte eine höhere subjektive Beanspruchung, insbesondere durch die wahrgenommene visuelle Belastung. Ebenso wurden längere Blickabwendungen von der Straße gefunden. Das Adaptieren der Nutzeroberfläche ohne den direkten Einfluss des Nutzers birgt das Risiko ein Gefühl der Bevormundung hervorzurufen. Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde ein Verfahren zur Erfassung der Bevormundung durch Technologie mittels eines kombinierten Experten- und Novizenansatzes durch Interviews, Onlineumfragen und eines psycho- lexikalischen Ansatzes entwickelt. Die Ergebnisse des finalen Fragebogens (Technology Paternalism Questionnaire, TPaQ) zeigten eine höhere wahrgenommene Bevormundung der adaptiven Systeme im Vergleich zu den konfigurierbaren und kontrollierbaren. Kein Unterschied bestand hingegen zu den statischen Systemen, was für ein allgemein erhöhtes Bevormundungsgefühl durch vordefinierte Systeme spricht. Die Befunde dieser Dissertation liefern eine Gestaltungslösung zur Unterstützung des Fahrers in der Interaktion mit dem Fahrzeug und der Umwelt. Informationen im HMI konnten reduziert und situationsabhängig adaptiv dargestellt werden, ohne das Fahrererleben und -verhalten zu beeinträchtigen. Um dem Gefühl der Bevormundung entgegenzuwirken und die UX zu erhöhen, sollte der Inhalt des HMIs für den Nutzer konfigurierbar, bzw. kontrollierbar sein.:1 INTRODUCTION 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Driving Models and Driving Tasks 2.1.1 Information Processing 2.1.2 Driver Distraction 2.2 System Attitude Model 2.2.1 User Experience 2.2.2 Behavioural Adaptations 2.2.3 Driver Capabilities 2.2.4 Driving Task Demands 2.3 HMI Design Solutions 2.3.1 Indication of Adaptation 2.3.2 Adaptation Contexts 2.3.3 Adaptive User Interfaces 2.3.4 Challenges for Adaptive User Interfaces 3 AIM OF THE THESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4 PRE-STUDIES: USER REQUIREMENTS AND NEEDS 4.1 Creativity Workshops 4.1.1 Background and Research Questions 4.1.2 Method 4.1.3 Results 4.1.4 Summary 4.2 Focus Group 4.2.1 Background and Research Questions 4.2.2 Method 4.2.3 Results 4.2.4 Summary 4.3 Online Survey 4.3.1 Background and Research Questions 4.3.2 Method 4.3.3 Results 4.3.4 Summary 4.4 Discussion 5 STUDY I: INTERACTION OF DRIVING SCENARIOS AND NON-DRIVING-RELATED TASKS 5.1 Background and Aim of the Study 5.1.1 Driver Distraction Effects under different NDRT Modalities 5.1.2 Driving Scenarios 5.2 Method 5.2.1 Independent Variables 5.2.2 Dependent Variables 5.2.3 Study Procedure 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Manipulation Check 5.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 5.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 5.4 Discussion 6 TECHNOLOGY PATERNALISM 6.1 Theoretical Background 6.1.1 Paternalism 6.1.2 Previous Research 6.1.3 Research Questions 6.2 Methodological Approach 6.3 Expert Approach 6.3.1 Method 6.3.2 Results 6.3.3 Summary 6.4 Novice Approach 6.4.1 Interviews: Perception of (Technology) Paternalism 6.4.2 First Online Survey: Psycholexical Approach 6.4.3 Second Online Survey: Experiences with Patronisation by Technology 6.5 Technology Paternalism Model 6.5.1 Identified Definition 6.5.2 Model Assumptions 6.6 First Validation 6.7 Test Statistics 6.7.1 Psychometric Criteria 6.7.2 Factor Structure 6.7.3 Moderation and Mediation Analyses 6.8 Conclusion and Implications 6.9 Final Questionnaire 7 STUDY II: ADAPTIVE HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACES 7.1 Background and Aim of the Study 7.1.1 Needed Information in an Automotive HMI 7.1.2 HMI Designs for the Simulator Study 7.1.3 Adaptive, static and configurable HMI Concepts in the Simulator Study 7.2 Method 7.2.1 Independent Variables 7.2.2 Dependent Variables 7.2.3 Study Procedure 7.3 Results 7.3.1 Manipulation Check 7.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 7.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 7.3.4 Configuration of the HMI 7.4 Discussion 8 STUDY III: ADAPTIVE HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACES IN THE FIELD 8.1 Background and Aim of the Study 8.1.1 HMI Designs for the Field Study 8.1.2 Adaptive, non-adaptive and controllable HMI Concepts in the Field Study 8.2 Method 8.2.1 Independent Variables 8.2.2 Dependent Variables 8.2.3 Study Procedure 8.3 Results 8.3.1 Manipulation Check 8.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 8.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 8.3.4 Controllable HMI 8.4 Discussion 9 GENERAL DISCUSSION 9.1 Effects of the Driving Scenario on NDRT Engagement Willingness and Driver Behaviour 9.2 Impacts of Adaptive HMI Concepts 9.3 Evaluation of Configurable and Controllable HMI Concepts 9.4 Patronisation through Technology 9.5 Limitations 9.6 Future Research and Theoretical Implications 9.7 Practical Implications 10 CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX CURRICULUM VITAE PUBLICATIONS LIST / As technology increases throughout our daily lives we are faced with new chances and challenges, also as car drivers. Extended availability and functionalities of in-vehicle information systems (IVIS) and driver assistance systems (ADAS) in addition to mobile device features tempt the driver into distraction from the driving task. Although the intent of the integration of new technologies is the fulfilment of drivers’ needs, it does not necessarily truly support the driver or counteract driver distraction. Driver distraction is an everlasting topic in driving research as failures in managing the driving task can have severe effects. Within the interaction of the driver, the vehicle and the environment, in-vehicle information systems are crucial in guaranteeing a fulfilment of the primary driving tasks of navigating, stabilizing and manoeuvring. To support the driver in this interaction of varying demands a contextual, driving scenario-based adaptation of the content in the information system poses an opportunity. The present doctoral thesis aimed at identifying a potential design solution for an IVIS to provide a safe and comfortable usage while maintaining safe driving behaviour. Therefore, an iterative user-centred design approach (UCD, DIN EN ISO 9241-210, 2010) was pursued. As a first step, the context and user requirements in interacting with non-driving-related tasks (NDRTs) were identified in the Pre-Studies following an explorative approach. Most prevalently, drivers engaged in using their smartphones for navigation and communication. The willingness to engage in an NDRT was reported to be dependent on the modality of the task in interaction with the driving scenario, where the road type had the highest impact. As the second step, the reported engagement willingness was evaluated in a driving simulator, Study I. For both visual-manual and cognitive-auditory NDRTs the reported engagement willingness predicted the perceived workload. A higher workload was perceived in driving scenarios of a lower reported engagement willingness for NDRTs. This finding was supported by the driving behaviour. For the visual-manual task, behavioural data showed an increase in reaction times in the scenarios where engagement willingness was reported to be lower. For cognitive-auditory tasks lower lane departures and speed variances were observed in the driving scenarios with a higher reported engagement willingness. These results fed into the third and fourth steps of the user-centred design process, Study II, in which first designs of an adaptive Human Machine Interface (HMI) were realised and tested in a driving simulator against a static and a configurable HMI. Based on the complexity of the driving scenario the information content in the HMI was reduced or increased. None of the HMI concepts adversely affected system usability, driving performance, or eye glance behaviour. The adaptive and the static concepts did not differ in subjective perceptions and behavioural adaptations. The configurable HMI was superior to the adaptive and static HMI concepts in user experience (UX), perceived usability, subjective workload, as well as acceptance, and attracted less glances to the centre stack display (CSD). Iteratively, the results of Study II were integrated in the adaptive HMI concepts and then tested in an on-road study, Study III. Two adaptive HMI concepts of higher adaptation degrees, a reduced, a loaded and a controllable HMI concept were evaluated regarding subjective perceptions and behavioural adaptations. Supporting the findings of Study II, the HMI concepts did not adversely affect system usability and driver behaviour. All concepts were equally high in UX and perceived usability. The controllable HMI showed some advances, as acceptance was higher than for the adaptive concepts. The loaded HMI provoked a higher workload, especially due to the visual load, and longer glances away from the road scene. Changing the user interface (UI) without the users’ direct control poses responsibility on the system designer: Users can feel patronised by the technical system. A method to assess Technology Paternalism was developed applying a combined expert and novice approach, including interviews, online surveys and a psycholexical approach. The final questionnaire, the Technology Paternalism Questionnaire (TPaQ), showed good reliability and validity. The results of the TPaQ indicated that the adaptive HMI concepts were perceived more patronising than the configurable and controllable HMI concepts. Though, the adaptive concepts did not differ to the static concepts, speaking for a general feeling of patronisation through pre-defined concepts. Solely the control over the visualisation reduced the perceived patronisation by a technical system. The findings within this doctoral thesis provide a design solution to face the issue of driver distraction and support the interaction of the driver, vehicle and environment. Information content in the HMI could be reduced and contextually adapted, as no adverse effects on drivers’ subjective perceptions and behavioural adaptations were found. In order to counteract a feeling of patronisation and increase the UX, the information content in the HMI should be configurable or controllable.:1 INTRODUCTION 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Driving Models and Driving Tasks 2.1.1 Information Processing 2.1.2 Driver Distraction 2.2 System Attitude Model 2.2.1 User Experience 2.2.2 Behavioural Adaptations 2.2.3 Driver Capabilities 2.2.4 Driving Task Demands 2.3 HMI Design Solutions 2.3.1 Indication of Adaptation 2.3.2 Adaptation Contexts 2.3.3 Adaptive User Interfaces 2.3.4 Challenges for Adaptive User Interfaces 3 AIM OF THE THESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4 PRE-STUDIES: USER REQUIREMENTS AND NEEDS 4.1 Creativity Workshops 4.1.1 Background and Research Questions 4.1.2 Method 4.1.3 Results 4.1.4 Summary 4.2 Focus Group 4.2.1 Background and Research Questions 4.2.2 Method 4.2.3 Results 4.2.4 Summary 4.3 Online Survey 4.3.1 Background and Research Questions 4.3.2 Method 4.3.3 Results 4.3.4 Summary 4.4 Discussion 5 STUDY I: INTERACTION OF DRIVING SCENARIOS AND NON-DRIVING-RELATED TASKS 5.1 Background and Aim of the Study 5.1.1 Driver Distraction Effects under different NDRT Modalities 5.1.2 Driving Scenarios 5.2 Method 5.2.1 Independent Variables 5.2.2 Dependent Variables 5.2.3 Study Procedure 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Manipulation Check 5.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 5.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 5.4 Discussion 6 TECHNOLOGY PATERNALISM 6.1 Theoretical Background 6.1.1 Paternalism 6.1.2 Previous Research 6.1.3 Research Questions 6.2 Methodological Approach 6.3 Expert Approach 6.3.1 Method 6.3.2 Results 6.3.3 Summary 6.4 Novice Approach 6.4.1 Interviews: Perception of (Technology) Paternalism 6.4.2 First Online Survey: Psycholexical Approach 6.4.3 Second Online Survey: Experiences with Patronisation by Technology 6.5 Technology Paternalism Model 6.5.1 Identified Definition 6.5.2 Model Assumptions 6.6 First Validation 6.7 Test Statistics 6.7.1 Psychometric Criteria 6.7.2 Factor Structure 6.7.3 Moderation and Mediation Analyses 6.8 Conclusion and Implications 6.9 Final Questionnaire 7 STUDY II: ADAPTIVE HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACES 7.1 Background and Aim of the Study 7.1.1 Needed Information in an Automotive HMI 7.1.2 HMI Designs for the Simulator Study 7.1.3 Adaptive, static and configurable HMI Concepts in the Simulator Study 7.2 Method 7.2.1 Independent Variables 7.2.2 Dependent Variables 7.2.3 Study Procedure 7.3 Results 7.3.1 Manipulation Check 7.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 7.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 7.3.4 Configuration of the HMI 7.4 Discussion 8 STUDY III: ADAPTIVE HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACES IN THE FIELD 8.1 Background and Aim of the Study 8.1.1 HMI Designs for the Field Study 8.1.2 Adaptive, non-adaptive and controllable HMI Concepts in the Field Study 8.2 Method 8.2.1 Independent Variables 8.2.2 Dependent Variables 8.2.3 Study Procedure 8.3 Results 8.3.1 Manipulation Check 8.3.2 Subjective Perceptions 8.3.3 Behavioural Adaptations 8.3.4 Controllable HMI 8.4 Discussion 9 GENERAL DISCUSSION 9.1 Effects of the Driving Scenario on NDRT Engagement Willingness and Driver Behaviour 9.2 Impacts of Adaptive HMI Concepts 9.3 Evaluation of Configurable and Controllable HMI Concepts 9.4 Patronisation through Technology 9.5 Limitations 9.6 Future Research and Theoretical Implications 9.7 Practical Implications 10 CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX CURRICULUM VITAE PUBLICATIONS LIST

Die Nutzung von Mobiltelefonen während des Fahrens, vor allem das Lesen und Verfassen von Textnachrichten („Texting“), hat in den letzten Jahren drastisch zugenommen und stellt ein wachsendes Risiko für die Verkehrssicherheit dar. Es ist bekannt, dass visuell-manuelle Zweitaufgaben wie Texting die Fahrleistung negativ beeinträchtigen und das Unfallrisiko erheblich erhöhen. Gleichzeitig gibt es jedoch auch Hinweise darauf, dass Fahrer eine Reihe von selbstregulatorischen Verhaltensweisen nutzen, um die erhöhten Anforderungen durch die Zweitaufgabenbearbeitung beim Fahren auszugleichen. Die meisten Befunde zur selbstregulatorischen Verhaltensanpassung während der Zweitaufgabenbearbeitung beim Fahren beruhen allerdings auf experimentellen Studien, in denen die Versuchspersonen in künstlichen Verkehrsumgebungen fahren und oftmals nicht frei entscheiden können, ob und wann sie eine Zweitaufgabe aufnehmen. Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es, selbstregulatorisches Verhalten basierend auf Daten aus sogenannten Naturalistic Driving Studies zu untersuchen und damit das Verständnis über ein Themengebiet zu verbessern, welches lange Zeit vernachlässigt wurde. Der Fokus lag dabei auf mobiltelefonbezogenen Aufgaben. Die Dissertation besteht aus fünf empirischen Artikeln sowie einer kurzen Synopse, in der theoretische Grundlagen zum Thema betrachtet sowie die Ergebnisse übergreifend zusammengefasst und diskutiert werden. Für die Studien, die den empirischen Artikeln zugrunde liegen, wurden Daten aus zwei großangelegten Naturalistic Driving Studies kodiert und analysiert – der US-amerikanischen SHRP 2 (Second Strategic Highway Research Program) Naturalistic Driving Study sowie der europäischen UDRIVE (European naturalistic Driving and Riding for Infrastructure & Vehicle safety and Environment) Naturalistic Driving Study. Das erste Forschungsziel der Dissertation bestand darin, selbstregulatorisches Verhalten in Form von Geschwindigkeitsanpassung zu untersuchen. Der Fokus lag dabei auf Fahrten, bei denen die Fahrer auf der Autobahn und im freien Verkehrsfluss fuhren. Für das Telefonieren mit dem Mobiltelefon ergab die Analyse der SHRP 2 Daten, dass Fahrer ihre Geschwindigkeit während des Telefonierens nicht reduzieren. Für Texting zeigten sich kleine Hinweise für eine Geschwindigkeitsanpassung, vor allem während des Fahrens mit höheren Geschwindigkeiten. Bei der Analyse der UDRIVE Daten konnten hingegen deutlichere Ergebnisse gefunden werden. Fahrer reduzierten ihre Geschwindigkeit nach dem Initiieren von Texting und erhöhten ihre Geschwindigkeit nach dem Beenden von Texting – in beiden Fällen um mehr als 2 km/h. Europäische Fahrer scheinen also „mehr“ selbstregulatorisches Verhalten zu zeigen als US-amerikanische Fahrer. Gründe für diese unterschiedlichen Befunde könnten in der Verkehrsinfrastruktur, der Fahrzeugausstattung sowie in den Stichprobencharakteristiken liegen. Das zweite Forschungsziel bezog sich auf die Identifikation der Orte, an denen das Mobiltelefon vor Beginn der mobiltelefonbezogenen Aufgabe verstaut wird, sowie deren Einfluss auf das Blickverhalten der Fahrer. Die Analyse der UDRIVE Daten zeigte, dass vor Beginn des Textings das Mobiltelefon zumeist offen und in Reichweite lag. Ähnliche Ergebnisse wurden bei der Analyse der SHRP 2 Daten für das Telefonieren gefunden. Die meisten Fahrer verstauten das Mobiltelefon in unmittelbarer Reichweite (z.B. auf dem Schoß). Bei einem Großteil dieser Fälle wurde darüber hinaus der Anruf vom Fahrer selbst initiiert. Dies lässt vermuten, dass sich Fahrer auf selbstinitiierte Anrufe vorbereiten und ihr Mobiltelefon in der Nähe verstauen, um den Aufwand des Suchens bzw. Greifens nach dem Mobiltelefon so gering wie möglich zu halten. Wenn sich das Mobiltelefon auf dem Beifahrersitz oder in der Tasche befand, war der Anruf zumeist eingehend. Die Analysen des Blickverhaltens in der Initiierungsphase eines Telefonats (d.h. wenn nach dem Mobiltelefon gesucht und gegriffen wird) zeigten, dass die Dauer der auf die Straße gerichteten Blicke tendenziell (allerdings nicht signifikant) zunimmt je weiter weg das Mobiltelefon verstaut wird, während kein Unterschied zwischen den Ablageorten hinsichtlich der Dauer der Blickabwendungen von der Straße erkennbar war. Dieser Befund legt nahe, dass Fahrer die Aufmerksamkeit, welche sie auf die primäre Fahraufgabe richten, in Abhängigkeit der Zweitaufgabenanforderung anpassen. Im Rahmen des dritten Forschungsziels der Dissertation wurden die Verkehrskontexte identifiziert, in denen Fahrer mobiltelefonbezogene Aufgaben vermehrt aufnehmen. Mit Ausnahme des Telefonierens initiierten die Fahrer mobiltelefonbezogene Aufgaben signifikant häufiger, wenn das Fahrzeug stand (z.B. an einer roten Ampel). Darüber hinaus wurde signifikant weniger getextet, wenn die Fahrer in einem konstanten Verkehrsfluss fuhren oder abbogen. Folglich scheinen Verkehrskontexte mit geringen Anforderungen an die primäre Fahraufgabe für die Aufnahme mobiltelefonbezogener Aufgaben präferiert zu werden. Dieser Befund konnte ebenfalls in einer weiteren Untersuchung bestätigt werden, bei welcher der Fokus auf Ampelsituationen lag. Texting wurde im Vergleich zum Telefonieren signifikant häufiger während des Stehens an der Ampel begonnen als auch beendet. Dies deutet daraufhin, dass Fahrer versuchen, die Dauer des Textings auf die Rotlichtphase zu beschränken. Aus den Blickanalysen ging hervor, dass Fahrer, die an der Ampel texteten, mehr als die Hälfte der Zeit auf das Mobiltelefon und somit nicht auf die Straße schauten. Es gab zudem einen beachtenswerten Teil an Fahrern, die Texting erst nach dem Wiederlosfahren beendeten, was das Situationsbewusstsein erheblich beeinträchtigen und sich damit negativ auf die Verkehrssicherheit auswirken kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation zeigen, dass Daten aus Naturalistic Driving Studies nicht nur verwendet werden können, um bereits bestehende Befunde aus experimentellen Studien zu validieren, sondern auch um neue Erkenntnisse bezüglich selbstregulatorischen Verhaltens während der Zweitaufgabenbearbeitung beim Fahren unter natürlichen Verkehrsbedingungen zu gewinnen. Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet damit einen Forschungsbeitrag im Bereich der Fahrerablenkung. In zukünftigen Untersuchungen sollte das Zusammenspiel zwischen strategischen und operationalen Verhaltensweisen sowie der Einfluss von individuellen Faktoren auf die selbstregulatorische Verhaltensanpassung thematisiert werden. Darüber hinaus stellen die Befunde einen Ausgangspunkt für die Ableitung praktischer Maßnahmen dar. Zur Erhöhung der Verkehrssicherheit könnten beispielsweise sogenannte Workload-Management-Systeme den Fahrer während einer Zweitaufgabenbearbeitung in kritischen (z.B. während des Fahrens mit hohen Geschwindigkeiten) oder in vermeintlich einfachen Verkehrsumgebungen (z.B. während des Stehens an einer roten Ampel) unterstützen, sodass die Aufmerksamkeit (rechtzeitig) auf die primäre Fahraufgabe gelenkt wird.:Danksagung i Zusammenfassung iii Table of Contents vii Synopsis 1 1 Introduction 1 2 Cell phone related driver distraction 2 2.1 Prevalence of cell phone usage while driving 3 2.2 Effects of cell phone usage while driving on driving performance 4 3 Self-regulatory behavior adaptation 5 3.1 Trying to find a definition of self-regulatory behavior adaptation 6 3.2 Theoretical frameworks to explain drivers’ self-regulatory behavior adaptation 6 3.2.1 Task Difficulty Homeostasis (Fuller, 2005, 2008, 2011) 7 3.2.2 Behavioural Adaptation Model (Young, Regan, & Lee, 2009) 8 3.3 Types of self-regulatory behavior adaptation 9 3.3.1 Operational self-regulatory behavior adaptation 10 3.3.2 Strategic self-regulatory behavior adaptation 12 4 Naturalistic driving study – A useful method to investigate driving behavior? 13 4.1 SHRP 2 naturalistic driving study 17 4.2 UDRIVE naturalistic driving study 17 5 Research objectives 17 5.1 Assessing drivers’ speed behavior 18 5.2 Identifying cell phone storage location before initiating a cell phone task and assessing its impact on drivers’ glance behavior 18 5.3 Assessing the driving contexts that encourage drivers to initiate a cell phone task and getting some indications about potential safety implications associated with this behavior strategy 19 5.4 Integration of the research objectives into the theoretical frameworks 19 6 Summary and conclusion 20 6.1 Main findings of the dissertation 20 6.1.1 Drivers’ speed behavior when engaged in cell phone tasks 20 6.1.2 Drivers’ cell phone storage location before initiating a cell phone task and its impact on drivers’ glance behavior 21 6.1.3 Driving contexts that encourage drivers to initiate a cell phone task and potential safety implications associated with this behavior strategy 22 6.2 Overall discussion 23 6.2.1 Methodological considerations 23 6.2.2 Theoretical implications 25 6.2.3 Practical implications 28 6.3 Conclusion 30 7 References 31 Paper I 43 Paper II 55 Paper III 73 Paper IV 83 Paper V 93 Curriculum Vitae 105 Publications 109

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Mon mémoire de recherche porte sur les représentations sur scène des différents types de folie féminine se retrouvant dans les pièces Hamlet de William Shakespeare et The Changeling de Thomas Middleton et William Rowley. Ceci est principalement réalisé par la rencontre de notions comme le genre, le corps féminin et les espaces domestiques. Dans mon analyse, je me base sur les conceptions de la folie qui prévalaient durant la Renaissance, en tandem avec les connaissances actuelles sur les traumatismes et les troubles mentaux. J’ai considéré dans ce mémoire la folie des personnages, simulée ou réelle, comme des formes d’(in)capacité mentale. Ce mémoire offre donc un point de vue nouveau sur la perception de la détresse féminine au début de l’époque moderne. Divisé en deux chapitres, le premier traite des causes engendrant le passage de la psyché d’Ophélie d’un état de lucidité à un état de folie, en mettant l’accent sur l’effet de sa jeunesse sur sa santé mentale. Le second chapitre s’intéresse aux états mentaux d’Isabella et de Beatrice-Joanna, respectivement, à travers l’intégration de concepts comme les troubles mentaux forgés, le ravissement et les traumatismes. Il est à mentionner à propos de cette démarche que ces personnages brouillent les distinctions entre la lucidité et la folie. / My thesis examines the on-stage manifestations of the different types of female madness presented in William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Thomas Middleton and William Rowley’s The Changeling. This is mainly accomplished through the exploration of the interwoven relations between notions such as gender, the female body, and domestic spaces. In my analysis, I primarily draw on the Renaissance understanding of madness in tandem with modern trauma and disability theories. I read the madness of these characters, feigned and real, as forms of mental (dis)ability. This thesis thus offers novel insights on the perception of early modern female distraction. Divided into two chapters, the first deals with the causes engendering the metamorphosis of Ophelia’s psyche from a state of sanity into a state of madness, placing emphasis on the effect of her youth on her mental transition. The second explores Isabella and Beatrice-Joanna’s mental dispositions, respectively, through the incorporation of concepts such as dissembled disability, ravishment, and trauma. In this endeavor it is noteworthy that these characters blur the lines between sanity and madness.

The aim of the study was to explore what methods the personnel in five residential care homes in Götaland, Sweden, implement to integrate unaccompanied minors. The study investigated how and what methods are constructed as well as how the social interaction between the unaccompanied minors and the personnel at the homes bring about the learning of the methods. Five face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed through the perspective of social construction and social learning theory. The result revealed that the methods are not clearly identified by the personnel. The personals are still learning how to work with unaccompanied minors from their experiences. This indicates that the practice is at its infant stage. The study found a wide variety of methods, which were based on the child and where some methods intend to build good relationship, to integrate the children into society and to facilitate the development of strategies and methods. The study also addresses the issue of how the methods and strategies can be affected by the dynamic migratory flow and the question of evidence based practice within this field.

Today, many organisations are adopting offices that have an open design with or without flexible seating. While advocates of open-plan offices propose that these office types lead to cost savings and aid inter and intra-team communication, opponents argue that these office types are associated with decreased performance and worsened health among employees. This thesis investigates how the type of office (cell offices, shared room offices, small open-plan offices, medium-sized open plan offices, large open-plan offices and flex offices) influences employee health and performance, and whether this is different for different personalities and jobs with different concentration demands. Data were gathered by means of surveys and cognitive tests from five organisations with different office types. In Study I (N=1241), the aim was to investigate the main effect of office type on indicators of health and performance and the interaction effect of office type with the need to concentrate in order to carry out work tasks. Office type alone was associated with distraction and cognitive stress in such a way that cell offices were associated with fewest problems, followed by flex offices, while open-plan offices were associated with the most problems. While employees in open-plan offices and employees in flex offices reported more problems as the need for concentration increased, employees in cell offices reported the same level of problems regardless of the need of concentration. Study II (N=527) investigated how performance on a memory test was affected during normal working conditions as compared to a quiet baseline. There was a negative dose-response relationship between the size of the open-plan office environment and the drop in word recall during the normal working condition. However, Study II also showed that individuals working in cell offices had as high a drop in performance during normal working conditions as did those working in large open-plan office environments. Study III (N=1133–1171) focused on the interaction effect between office type and individual differences in personality. The personality trait agreeableness interacted with office type on the outcome variables distraction and job satisfaction. Specifically, Study III may indicate that as offices get more open and flexible, agreeable people will report more problems. In conclusion, the studies in the present thesis have implications for practice and suggest that office type impacts on employee health and performance, while concentration demands of the job and agreeableness moderate the effects. Although employees report higher level of distraction in open-plan office environments, when performance on a demanding task is measured, cell offices are not as favourable during normal working conditions as self-reported data usually indicate. Organisations should also be aware that, among open-plan offices, small open-plan offices are associated with fewer problems. / Kontorslandskap med eller utan fasta arbetsstationer förekommer idag i många organisationer. Förespråkare för kontorslandskap hänvisar till kostnadsbesparing samt förbättrade förutsättningar för kommunikation, medan motståndare hävdar att kontorslandskap leder till försämrad prestation och hälsa bland medarbetarna. Denna avhandling undersöker om kontorstyp påverkar de anställdas hälsa och prestation, samt om effekten av kontorstyp varierar beroende på de anställdas personlighet och typ av arbetsuppgifter. Data i form av enkätsvar och prestation på kognitiva tester samlades in från fem organisationer med olika typer av kontorslösningar (cellkontor, delade kontorsrum, små kontorslandskap, mellanstora kontorslandskap, stora kontorslandskap och flexkontor). I studie I (N = 1241) var syftet att undersöka huvudeffekten av kontorstyp på indikatorer för hälsa och prestation samt om effekten är beroende av koncentrationskraven i arbetet. Kontorstyp visade samband med distraktion och kognitiv stress på så sätt att medarbetare i cellkontor uppgav minst problem, följt av de i flexkontor, medan kontorslandskap var förknippade med mer problem. Vidare rapporterade anställda som hade arbetsuppgifter som krävde koncentration mer problem i kontorslandskap och flexkontor, medan anställda i cellkontor, oavsett arbetets krav, rapporterade lika mycket problem. I studie II (N = 527) undersöktes hur prestation på ett minnestest påverkades under normala arbetsförhållanden jämfört med en tyst referensmätning i olika kontorstyper. Det fanns ett negativt dos-responssamband mellan storleken på kontorslandskapet och hur många procent sämre medarbetare presterade under normala arbetsförhållanden. Men Studie II visade också att personer som arbetar i cellkontor hade ett lika högt bortfall i prestation under normala arbetsförhållanden som de som arbetade i stora kontorslandskap. I studie III (N = 1133-1171) låg fokus på interaktionseffekten mellan kontorstyp och personlighet. Vänlighet var den enda personlighetsvariabeln som interagerade med kontorstyp på utfallsvariablerna distraktion och arbetstillfredsställelse. Mer specifikt visade Studie III att när kontoret blir mer öppet och flexibelt, så rapporterar människor som skattar sig högt på personlighetsvariabeln vänlighet fler problem. Resultaten i avhandlingen kan få flera praktiska implikationer då den visar att kontorstyp påverkar medarbetarnas hälsa och prestation, medan koncentrationskrävande arbetsuppgifter och vänlighet modererar effekterna. Vidare visar avhandlingen att även om anställda rapporterar mindre distraktion i cellkontor jämfört med i kontorslandskap, behöver inte cellkontor vara lika gynnsamma som självskattade mått visar när prestationen mäts med objektiva mått under normala arbetsförutsättningar, i det här fallet ett minnestest. Slutligen bör organisationer även vara medvetna om att avhandlingen visar en viss tendens att små kontorslandskap är förknippade med mindre problem än stora. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-12T20:22:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RAFAEL ALCESTE BERRI.pdf: 28428368 bytes, checksum: 667b9facc9809bfd5e0847e15279b0e6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In this work, three proposals of systems have been developed using a frontal camera to monitor the driver and enabling to identificate if a cell phone is being used while driving the vehicle. It is estimated that 80% of crashes and 65% of near collisions involved drivers who were inattentive in traffic for three seconds before the event. Five videos in real environment were generated to test the systems. The pattern recognition system (RP) uses adaptive skin segmentation, feature extraction, and machine learning to detect cell phone usage on each frame. The cell phone detection happens when, in periods of 3 seconds, 60% (threshold) of frames or more are identified as a cell phone use, individually. The average accuracy on videos achieved was 87.25% with Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), Gaussian activation function, and two neurons of the intermediate layer. The movement detection system (DM) uses optical flow, filtering the most relevant movements of the scene, and three successive frames for detecting the movements to take the phone to the ear and take it off. The DM proposal was not demonstrated as being an effective solution for detecting cell phone use, reaching an accuracy of 52.86%. The third solution is a hybrid system. It uses the RP system for classification and the DM for choosing the RP parameters. The parameters chosen for RP are the threshold and the classification system. The definition of these two parameters occurs at the end of each period, based on movement detected by the DM. Experimentally it was established that, when the movement induces to use cell phone, it is proper to use the threshold of 60%, and the classifier as MLP/Gaussian with seven neurons of the intermediate layer; otherwise, it is used threshold 85%, and MLP/Gaussian with two neurons of the intermediate layer for classification. The hybrid solution is the most robust system with average accuracy of 91.68% in real environment. / Neste trabalho, são desenvolvidas três propostas de sistemas que permitem identificar o uso de celular, durante o ato de dirigir um veículo, utilizando imagens capturadas de uma câmera posicionada em frente ao motorista. Estima-se que 80% das colisões e 65% das quase colisões envolveram motoristas que não estavam prestando a devida atenção ao trânsito por três segundos antes do evento. Cinco vídeos em ambiente real foram gerados com o intuito de testar os sistemas. A proposta de reconhecimento de padrões (RP) emprega segmentação de pele adaptativa, extração de características e aprendizado de máquina (classificador) na detecção do celular em cada quadro processado. A detecção do uso do celular ocorre quando, em períodos de 3 segundos, ao menos em 60% dos quadros (corte) são identificados com celular. A acurácia média nos vídeos alcançou 87, 25% ao utilizar Perceptron Multi-camadas (MLP) com função de ativação gaussiana e dois neurônios na camada intermediária como classificador. A proposta de detecção de movimento (DM) utiliza o fluxo ótico, filtragem dos movimentos mais relevantes da cena e três quadros consecutivos para detectar os momentos de levar o celular ao ouvido e o retirá-lo. A aplicação do DM, como solução para detectar o uso do celular, não se demostrou eficaz atingindo uma acurácia de 52, 86%. A terceira proposta, uma solução híbrida, utiliza o sistema RP como classificador e o de DM como seu parametrizador. Os parâmetros escolhidos para o sistema de RP são o corte e o sistema classificador. A definição desses dois parâmetros ocorre ao final de cada período, baseada na movimentação detectada pela DM. Com experimentações definiu-se que, caso a movimentação induza ao uso do celular, é adequado o uso do corte de 60% e o classificador MLP/Gaussiana com sete neurônios na camada intermediária, caso contrário, utiliza-se o corte de 85% e classificador MLP/Gaussiana com dois neurônios na mesma camada. A versão híbrida é a solução desenvolvida mais robusta, atingindo a melhor acurácia média de 91, 68% em ambiente real.

Modern vehicles are designed to protect occupants in the event of a crash with some vehicles better at this than others. However, passenger protection during an accident has shown to be not enough in many high impact crashes. Statistics have shown that the human error is the number one contributor to road accidents. This research study explores how driver error can be reduced through technology which observes driver behaviour and reacts when certain unwanted patterns in behaviour have been detected. Finally a system that detects driver fatigue and driver distraction has been developed using non-invasive machine vision concepts to monitor observable driver behaviour. / Electrical Engineering / M. Tech. (Electrical Engineering)

Orthognatic surgery deals with congenital and acquired dentoalveolar or skeletal deformities of the face. An unfavourable downward rotation of a mandible and posterior vertical maxillary excess cause an anterior open bite, which is characterized by excessive anterior facial height in the lower third, a gap between the incisors in maximal occlusion and a large mandibular angle. Osteotomy (mainly Le Fort I osteotomy or bilateral sagittal split osteotomy of the mandibular ramus - BSSO), ostectomy or distraction osteogenesis are performed to correct the orthognatic deformities. Osteosynthetic materials based on titanium or bioresorbable materials are used in the form of miniplates with monocortical screws, or bicortical screws are utilized to fix the bony fragments. Stability of the new jaws position is the main criterion for success. Relapse causes a loss of occlusion and consequently functional and aesthetic disorders. Relapse consists of skeletal and dental factors. Skeletal relapse is usually divided into early and long-term relapse. BSSO with counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation of the occlusal plane alone was traditionally considered to be the least stable treatment method. Some authors suggest the use of two miniplates on each side of the osteotomy, but we have not found scientific proof of the...