It is in the area of the regulation of a company's share capital and distributions to shareholders that the inherent conflict between creditors and shareholders, and the fragile balance among shareholders internally, intersect. The share capital of a company underlies its corporate structure and represents not only its initial own funds from which creditors can be paid, but also the relative equity interests of the shareholders. The balance between shareholders can be disturbed by capital reorganisations through increase, reduction or variation of share capital or through disproportionate contributions by, or distributions to, shareholders. Share repurchases are particularly risky in this regard. Creditor interests are affected when their prior right to payment is endangered by distributions to shareholders. This study analyses the South African Law relating to share capital and distributions against the background of a comparative study of the laws of England, New Zealand, Delaware and California, as well as the provisions of the American Model Business Corporations Act. Two main approaches to creditor protection are evident. The capital maintenance doctrine, which is followed in England and Delaware, protects creditors by emphasising the notional share capital of the company as a limit on distributions. In contrast, the solvency and liquidity approach focuses on the net assets of the company and on its ability to pay its debts. New Zealand, California and the Model Business Corporations Act represent this approach. Regulatory responses to shareholder protection range from insistence on compliance with procedural requirements to minimal statutory intervention in the internal affairs of companies, instead relying on general principles of fairness and good faith. There is little correlation between a particular system's approach to creditor protection on the one hand, and to shareholder protection on the other. England, New Zealand and South Africa prescribe specific formalities, while the American approach is more relaxed. South Africa is a hybrid system. Its transition from capital maintenance to solvency and liquidity has been incomplete and its protection of equity interests is relatively unsophisticated. A number of recommendations are made for an effective and coherent approach that will safeguard the interests of creditors and shareholders alike. / School: Law / LL.D.

The disclosure of headline earnings is one of the JSE Limited (JSE)’s listing requirements. All listed entities are required to comply with this disclosure requirement. Guidance in the form of The Circular on headline earnings is issued by the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), and is updated every time when there are changes to the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). The Circular adopts a rules-based approach and specifies what is included and excluded in the calculation of headline earnings. The rules consist of general rules, which apply to all entities other than those industry groups with special provisions such as the life insurance entities. This study questions whether a rules-based headline earnings approach or a principles-based approach is more appropriate for the calculation of headline earnings of listed property entities on the JSE, for economic decision-making purposes. The research method consisted of questionnaires that were sent out to stakeholders. The responses from the CFOs and investment analysts show that principles-based headline earnings guidance is preferred over rules-based headline earnings guidance. / Business Management / M. Phil (Accounting Sciences)

Intäktsredovisning är av stor vikt för företag och bedöms i de flesta fall vara en av de största bokföringsposterna. Olika redovisningsmetoder kan ge upphov till olika utfall vilket kan påverka de intressenter som företaget interagerar med. Sedan den 1 januari 2018 har en ny redovisningsstandard för intäktsredovisning trätt i kraft - IFRS 15. Den nya standarden har utvecklats av IASB i ett led för att uppnå konvergens genom en enda uppsättning av redovisningsstandarder internationellt. För noterade företag inom EU är det obligatoriskt att upprätta koncernredovisning i enlighet med IFRS. Ur ett svenskt perspektiv kommer således noterade koncerner att påverkas av den nya intäktsstandarden. För moderbolagen i noterade koncerner blir utfallet samma eftersom dessa företag måste tillämpa regelverket RFR 2 för redovisning. RFR 2 följer IFRS, men med anpassning för ÅRL och dess upplysningskrav. För dotterbolagen i noterade koncerner finns dock möjlighet att välja mellan regelverken RFR 2 och K3 vid upprättande av den finansiella rapporteringen. K3 är utvecklat av BFN och följer enbart de upplysningskrav som följer av ÅRL. Syftet med studien är att redogöra för hur intäktsredovisningen och utfallen skiljer sig åt vid tillämpning av K3 och RFR 2. Vidare syftar studien till att undersöka hur de olika tillämpningarna påverkar nyckeltal, beskattning och utdelningsmöjligheter ur ett intressentperspektiv. För att uppnå syftet har tre typfall konstruerats som berör entreprenadavtal, tjänsteuppdrag och försäljning av varor. Typfallen har analyserats genom att tillämpa respektive regelverk avseende recognition av intäkter, nyckeltal, inkomstskatt och utdelningsmöjligheter med hjälp av en modifierad intressentmodell. Den metod som tillämpats för studien är en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av abduktiv karaktär. Typfallens utfall ger slutsatsen att recognition av intäkter möjliggörs vid ett tidigare stadie vid tillämpning av RFR 2 och den nya intäktsstandarden IFRS 15 avseende försäljning av varor. Vid entreprenadavtal ges dock en senareläggning av recognition i jämförelse med K3 och vid tjänsteuppdrag görs ingen åtskillnad mellan regelverken. Vår slutsats är vidare att dessa skillnader även ger effekt på både nyckeltal, inkomstskatt att betala och utdelningsmöjligheter. / Revenue recognition is of great importance to companies and is, in most cases, considered to be one of the largest accounting posts. Different accounting methods can give rise to different outcomes, which may affect the stakeholders that the company interacts with. Since January 1, 2018, a new accounting standard for revenue recognition is effective - IFRS 15. The new standard has been developed by the IASB as a step to achieve convergence through a single set of accounting standards internationally. For listed companies within the EU, it is mandatory to prepare consolidated accounts in accordance with IFRS. Thus, from a Swedish perspective, listed groups will be affected by the new revenue standard. For parent companies in listed groups, the outcome will be the same as these companies must apply the RFR 2 regulatory framework. RFR 2 complies with IFRS, but with adaptation for ÅRL and its disclosure requirements. However, for subsidiaries in listed groups there is the option to choose between the RFR 2 and K3 regulations when preparing the financial reporting. K3 is developed by BFN and only complies with the disclosure requirements that follow from ÅRL. The purpose of the study is to explain how the income statement and outcomes differ when applying K3 and RFR 2. Furthermore, the study aims at investigating how the various applications affect key performance indicators, taxation and dividend opportunities from an interest-rate perspective. To achieve this objective, three types of cases have been designed concerning contractual contracts, service assignments and sales of goods. The cases have been analyzed by applying the respective rules regarding recognition of revenues, key performance indicators, income tax and dividend opportunities using a modified stakeholder model. The method used for the study is a qualitative content analysis of abductive nature. The outcome of the cases gives rise to the conclusion that recognition of revenue is possible at an earlier stage when applying RFR 2 and the new revenue standard IFRS 15 regarding the sale of goods. However, in the case of a contractual contract, a retrenchment of recognition is given in comparison with K3 and in the case of service assignments, no distinction is made between the rules. Our conclusion is further that these differences also affect both key performance indicators, income tax to pay and dividend opportunities.

It is in the area of the regulation of a company's share capital and distributions to shareholders that the inherent conflict between creditors and shareholders, and the fragile balance among shareholders internally, intersect. The share capital of a company underlies its corporate structure and represents not only its initial own funds from which creditors can be paid, but also the relative equity interests of the shareholders. The balance between shareholders can be disturbed by capital reorganisations through increase, reduction or variation of share capital or through disproportionate contributions by, or distributions to, shareholders. Share repurchases are particularly risky in this regard. Creditor interests are affected when their prior right to payment is endangered by distributions to shareholders. This study analyses the South African Law relating to share capital and distributions against the background of a comparative study of the laws of England, New Zealand, Delaware and California, as well as the provisions of the American Model Business Corporations Act. Two main approaches to creditor protection are evident. The capital maintenance doctrine, which is followed in England and Delaware, protects creditors by emphasising the notional share capital of the company as a limit on distributions. In contrast, the solvency and liquidity approach focuses on the net assets of the company and on its ability to pay its debts. New Zealand, California and the Model Business Corporations Act represent this approach. Regulatory responses to shareholder protection range from insistence on compliance with procedural requirements to minimal statutory intervention in the internal affairs of companies, instead relying on general principles of fairness and good faith. There is little correlation between a particular system's approach to creditor protection on the one hand, and to shareholder protection on the other. England, New Zealand and South Africa prescribe specific formalities, while the American approach is more relaxed. South Africa is a hybrid system. Its transition from capital maintenance to solvency and liquidity has been incomplete and its protection of equity interests is relatively unsophisticated. A number of recommendations are made for an effective and coherent approach that will safeguard the interests of creditors and shareholders alike. / School: Law / LL.D.

The disclosure of headline earnings is one of the JSE Limited (JSE)’s listing requirements. All listed entities are required to comply with this disclosure requirement. Guidance in the form of The Circular on headline earnings is issued by the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), and is updated every time when there are changes to the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). The Circular adopts a rules-based approach and specifies what is included and excluded in the calculation of headline earnings. The rules consist of general rules, which apply to all entities other than those industry groups with special provisions such as the life insurance entities. This study questions whether a rules-based headline earnings approach or a principles-based approach is more appropriate for the calculation of headline earnings of listed property entities on the JSE, for economic decision-making purposes. The research method consisted of questionnaires that were sent out to stakeholders. The responses from the CFOs and investment analysts show that principles-based headline earnings guidance is preferred over rules-based headline earnings guidance. / Business Management / M. Phil. (Accounting Sciences)

La société holding est une réalité économique dont l’importance ne cesse d’augmenter. Plusieurs États offrent des régimes de faveurs fiscales pour attirer les holdings sur leurs territoires. Le système fiscal turc n’offre pas un tel «régime holding» mais il comporte plusieurs dispositions qui offrent certains avantages aux participations turques et étrangères. Une fiscalité avantageuse pour les holdings est intéressante pour un État dans la mesure où elle lui permet d’attirer les entreprises. Les dispositions fiscales peuvent rendre un territoire attractif et compétitif mais elles peuvent inciter une évasion fiscale à l’intérieur même du territoire. Le second risque engendré par le régime fiscal avantageux est l’établissement d’une concurrence fiscale déloyale. Les éléments clés d’une fiscalité idéale pour la société holding prennent en compte, d’une part la distribution des bénéfices de la holding, et d’autre part, les bénéfices provenant de ses propres participations, notamment les dividendes provenant de ses filiales et les plus-values de cession de ces participations. Par ailleurs, le régime fiscal holding doit être attractif et compétitif tout en restant compatible avec les principes reconnus du droit fiscal international. / The holding company is an economic reality whose importance is still increasing. Several countries offer tax benefits plans to attract holdings in their territories. The Turkish tax system does not offer such a "holding plan" but it contains several provisions that provide certain benefits to Turkish and foreign investments. Tax advantages for holding companies are important for the State to the extent that it attracts businesses and group companies. The tax provisions can make an attractive and competitive territory, yet they may increase tax evasion within the same territory. Another risk caused by the advantageous tax regime is harmful tax competition. The key elements of an ideal tax system of holding companies are about, first of all, the distribution of profits of the holding company and secondly, income from its own shares, including dividends from its subsidiaries and the capital gains disposal of their shares. Furthermore, the holding company tax system must be both competitive and attractive and at the same time it must be compatible with the principles acknowledged by international tax law.

This masters thesis main focus is a statement of cash flows as regulated by czech accounting legislation, International Financial Reporting Standards and US GAAP. First chapter describes the importance of Statement of cash flows and his value added for users of financial statements. The historical context of the statement is shown, it is stated which entities are obligated to report statement of cash flows and lastly the internal structure of the statement is discussed. The second chapter begins by general methods of preparing the statement, then so called specific items are dealt with. The solution of some advanced accounting transactions (government grants, leases, loans, deferred payments etc.) is described. In the end the presentation and dislocure requirements are discussed. Last chapter contains research, where 99 companies are researched, answers are made concerning stated research questions and research hypothesis are concluded.

The subject of this dissertation is to do a fundamental analysis based on chosen shares on the czech capital market. The chosen corporations are Telefonica O2 Czech Republic, a.s. and ČEZ, a.s. In this dissertation I have set the share value, the prediction of the progression of dividends and the amount of ratio index. Further I have made a recommendation for future investors and the timing of their commerce.

People make a company. Their expertise and talents, efficiency and job performance determine the company‘s profitability and growth. The long-term retention of employees is of the utmost importance, as these employees have a wealth of knowledge about the company, its industry and the products or services being sold. Businesses have created plans to retain employees for a maximum period of time. These ideas include cash bonuses, phantom share schemes, and providing the employee with shares in the business. This study will look at such ideas in general, and specifically investigate the different ways of providing employees with shares in the business. There are different ways of providing the employee with shares in a business. This can include loans (including interest-free loans) to the employee from the employer, loans to the employee from a financial institution, employee share ownership plans, company share option plans and providing the employee with shares in the business through an employee share trust. Each of these methods attracts certain taxes such as income tax, capital gains tax and secondary tax on companies or dividend tax. The aim of this study is to use a case study approach, critically analysing an anonymous company providing its employees with shares in the company through an employee share trust, and will specifically investigate the different tax consequences of each transaction taking place in the trust AFRIKAANS : Werknemers is 'n maatskappy se belangrikste bate. 'n Maatskappy se winsgewendheid en groei word deur sy werknemers se kennis, doeltreffendheid en werksprestasie bepaal. Dit is vir 'n maatskappy van kritieke belang om sy werknemers vir so lank as moontlik te behou, aangesien hierdie werknemers oor kosbare kennis besit rakende die maatskappy, die bedryf waarin die maatskappy besigheid doen en die produkte of dienste wat die maatskappy bemark. Talle maatskappy het skemas bewerkstellig om hulle werknemers vir so lank as moontlik te behou. Dit behels onder andere kontantbonusse, fiktiewe aandeleskemas en die verkryging van aandele in die maatskappy deur die werknemer. Hierdie studie ondersoek sodanige skemas in die algemeen, en fokus spesifiek op werknemers wat aandele in 'n maatskappy bekom. Werknemers kan aandele in die maatskappy op verskillende wyses bekom. Hierdie wyses sluit in lenings (insluitend rentevrye lenings) van die maatskappy aan die werknemer, lenings aan die werknemer van 'n finansiële instelling, aandeleskemas, opsies om aandele in 'n maatskappy te koop, en die verskaffing van aandele aan die werknemer deur 'n werknemer-aandeletrust. Elkeen van hierdie opsies het spesifieke belastinggevolge, insluitend inkomstebelasting, kapitaalwinsbelasting, en sekondêre belasting op maatskappye of dividendbelasting. Die doel van hierdie studie is om 'n spesifieke gevallestudie van 'n annonieme maatskappye te ontleed, waar die maatskappy aandele aan sy werknemers deur 'n werknemer-aandeletrust verskaf het, en sal in detail na die belastinggevolge van elke aksie in die trust te kyk. Copyright 2011, University of Pretoria. All rights reserved. The copyright in this work vests in the University of Pretoria. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the University of Pretoria. Please cite as follows: Fouche, C 2011, Taxation consequences of providing shares to employees through a trust, MCom dissertation, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, viewed yymmdd < http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-03262012-153458 / > F12/4/187/gm / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Taxation / unrestricted

The relevance or irrelevance of dividend payments has been the topic of much discussion for the past eight decades. The primary objective of this study was to determine the relationship between dividend policy and agency problems of financial services companies listed on the (JSE). Dividend Policy and the Agency Theory underpinned the study. Secondary data of sampled listed financial companies for the period 2005-2016 was sourced from IRESS database. Data was analysed using EViews version 9. The results revealed that the presence of institutional ownership resolves the asymmetry information problems, and, reduces the need to pay dividends. The results also revealed that 54.69% of JSE listed companies under the financials’ services sector practise dividend decisions. The results further revealed that the dividend payout ratio is positively correlated with ROE and LEV, and negatively correlated INST, DIRS and FOREIGN variables. The results confirmed the existence of agency problems on listed financial services companies. / Ukubaluleka okanye ukungabaluleki kokuhlawula izahlulo bekusoloko kusisihloko sengxoxo kumashumi asibhozo eminyaka edluleyo. Injongo ephambili yesi sifundo yayikukufumanisa ulwalamano phakathi komgaqo nkqubo wezahlulelo neengxaki zobumeli (ubuarhente) beenkampani ezinikezela ngeenkonzo zemicimbi yoqoqosho nezidweliswe kwiJohannesburg Securities Exchange (JSE). Izisekelo zesi sifundo nguMgaqo Nkqubo Wezahlulo (Dividend Policy) neNgcingane Yobumeli (Agency Theory). Iqela lesibini ledatha yeenkampani ezidwelisiweyo kwiminyaka ye-2005– 2016 yafunyanwa kwiqula leedatha elaziwa ngokuba yi-IRESS database. Idatha yahlalutywa ngokusebenzisa isixhobo sohlalutyo iEViews version 9. Iziphumo zadiza ukuba ubukho babanini kwiziko loshishino buyazisombulula iingxaki zonxibelelwano olungalingani kakuhle kwaye kuyasicutha isidingo sokuhlawula izahlulo. Kwakhona, iziphumo zadiza ukuba ama-54.69% eenkampani ezidweliswe kwiJSE, phantsi kodidi lweenkampani ezinikezela ngeenkonzo zemicimbi yoqoqosho, enza izigqibo zezahlulo. Iziphumo zaphinda zadiza ukuba intlawulo yezahlulo ihambelana kakuhle neenqobo zeROE neLEV, kanti azihambelani neenqobo zeINST, ezeDIRS kunye nekuthiwa ziFOREIGN. Ezi ziphumo zangqina ukuba kukho iingxaki zobumeli/ubuarhente kwiinkampani ezinikezela ngeenkonzo zemicimbi yoqoqosho / Bonnete le go se be bonnete ga ditefelo tša letseno e bile hlogo ya ditherišano tše dintši mo mo dingwagasome tše seswai tša go feta. Nepo ya motheo ya thuto ye ke go ela kamano gare ga pholisi le mathata a dikhamphani tša ditirelo tša Matlotlo tšeo di lego lenaneong la Johannesburg Securities Exchange (JSE). Pholisi ya Ditseno le Teori ya Etšensi ke motheo wa thuto ye. Datha ya magareng ya dikhamphani tša mašeleng tšeo di lego lenaneong la paka ya 2005–2016 e be e hwetšagala go tšwa go lenaneo la datha la IRESS. Datha e sekasekilwe go šomišwa EViews version 9. Dipoelo di utullotše gore go ba gona ga bong ka gare ga sehlongwa go rarolla mathata a tshedimošo ya go se lekalekane, le go fokotša nyakego ya go lefa mašokotšo. Dipoelo le tšona di tšweleditše go re diperesente tše 54.69 tša dikhamphani tšeo di lego lenaneong la JSE ka fase ga ditirelo tša sekgao sa go phethagatša diphetho tša mašokotšo. Dipoelo di tšwetša pele go utulla go re ditekanyetšo tša ditefelo tša mašokotšo du sepelelana gabotse le ROE le LEV, le go sepelelana gannyane le INST, DIRS le FOREIGN. Dipoelo di netefatša go ba gona ga mathata a Etšensi ao a ngwadilwego lenaneong la dikhamphani tša ditirelo tša mašeleng / Abstracts in English, Zulu, Sepedi / Business Management / M. Com. (Business Management)