Aujourd'hui, l'électrification des véhicules constitue une des solutions mises en œuvre par les constructeurs automobiles dans la lutte contre les émissions de gaz polluants et pour la réduction des consommations. Comme le prix des aimants terres rares a fortement augmenté ces dernières années, les moteurs électriques sans aimants permanents sont attractifs, comme les moteurs asynchrones, synchrones à rotor bobiné, à réluctance variable (double saillance ou synchrone). Dans cette thèse, les machines asynchrones et synchrones à réluctance variable sont étudiées et comparées pour des véhicules électriques. Ces deux machines ont un coût faible et possèdent des structures de puissance et de contrôles similaires.Des modèles analytiques non linéaires de machines asynchrones et synchrones à réluctance variable sont établis et validés. En outre, leurs modèles économiques et mécaniques sont également mis en œuvre. Sur la base des modèles analytiques établis, la géométrie et les paramètres de commande des machines étudiées sont dimensionnés afin de réduire les pertes énergétiques durant des cycles de conduite. Une optimisation bi-objective est proposée afin de minimiser en même temps les pertes énergétiques et le coût du moteur. Enfin, les machines optimisées sont comparées, à l’aide de Fronts de Pareto, pour évaluer leurs performances électriques, énergétiques et économiques. / Today, the concerns of the energy crisis and the reduction of gas emissions stimulate the research in several electric vehicle domains. As the cost of rare earth magnetic materials has increased significantly in recent years, electrical motors without permanent magnets draw more attention, such as induction motors, wound-synchronous motors, switched reluctance motors, and synchronous reluctant motors. In this thesis, induction and synchronous reluctant machines are chosen to be studied for the electric vehicle traction application since they are low costly and fed up with similar power electronics and control strategies.Nonlinear analytical models of induction and synchronous reluctant machines are established and validated. Besides, economical and mechanical models are developed as well. Based on established analytical models, the geometry and the control parameters of these studied machines are calculated to define the total energy losses during the driving cycle. A bi-objective optimization is carried out to minimize total energy losses and motor costs. At last, the optimized machines are compared from their electric, energetic and economic performances, with the help of the Pareto Fronts obtained.

Permanent magnet (PM) machines offer several advantages in traction applications such as high efficiencyand high torque per volume ratio. The iron losses in these machines are estimated mostly with empiricallaws taken from other types of machines or with finite element simulations (FEM). In the first part of thisthesis the objective is to define an accurate analytical model for the stator yoke, teeth and rotor of a PMmotor which should work well enough for all operating point (different loads and frequency).This analytical model is found using an iterative process. After building a loss matrix and flux matrix basedon FEM simulations, it is possible to curve fit each of the lines or the rows of the matrix in order to achievethe best fitting for every operating point. This is a very new approach; it was shown that it gives thepossibility, even with a very limited number of FEM simulations, to achieve an accurate estimation of thelosses.The second part of this report focuses on optimizing this analytical method, comparing it with otherpossibilities, analyzing limits and advantages. Special attention is also given to the effects of the losses onthe temperatures in different parts of the machine. In the last part of the thesis, the analytical model isused to test a new control strategy. Its goal is to reduce the total losses of the motor and optimize the ratiobetween torque and total losses for a given driving cycle.

The impact of driving cycle on exhaust emissions of buses in Hanoi was presented in this article. A typical driving cycle of buses in Hanoi was developed based on the real-world driving data, and it also was assessed that has a good conformity with the real-world driving data. The typical driving cycle and European Transient Cycle part 1 (ETC-part1) were used to estimate vehicle emission according to different driving cycles. The obtained results showed that emissions level of CO, VOC, PM, CO2 and NOx of the buses were very different between two driving cycles, especially CO2 and NOx. This paper, therefore, reconfirms the necessity of the development of the typical driving cycle before conducting the emission inventory for mobile sources. / Tóm tắt: Tác động của chu trình lái tới sự phát thải của xe buýt tại Hà Nội đã được trình bày trong bài báo này. Một chu trình lái đặc trưng của xe buýt Hà Nội đã được xây dựng dựa trên dữ liệu hoạt động ngoài thực tế của phương tiện, và chu trình lái này cũng đã được đánh giá có sự phù hợp rất cao với dữ liệu lái ngoài thực tế. Chu trình lái đặc trưng và chu trình thử ETC-part1 được sử dụng để đánh giá phát thải của phương tiện theo các chu trình lái khác nhau. Các kết quả đạt được cho thấy mức độ phát thải CO, VOC, PM, CO2 và NOx của xe buýt rất khác nhau giữa hai chu trình lái, đặc biệt là CO2 và NOx. Do đó, bài báo khẳng định sự cần thiết phải xây dựng chu trình lái đặc trưng trước khi thực hiện kiểm kê phát thải đối với nguồn động.

La pollution atmosphérique est une problématique urbaine majeure, avec des concentrations de polluants dépassant fréquemment les seuils de recommandations pour la santé. Les véhicules participent fortement à la pollution atmosphérique malgré l’intégration de systèmes de dépollution dans leur ligne d’échappement. L’objectif de ce travail de recherche était de caractériser les émissions primaires à l’échappement des véhicules ainsi que leur évolution physique en champ proche pour mieux comprendre la contribution des émissions primaires liées au trafic à la pollution atmosphérique urbaine. L’évolution des émissions a été étudiée dans une chambre de simulation atmosphérique qui a permis de simuler des conditions atmosphériques contrôlées.La première partie de ce travail était centrée sur les mesures d’émissions à l’échappement des véhicules récents qui sont ou seront majoritaires dans le parc automobile français dans les prochaines années. Pour cela, un échantillon de véhicules regroupant les principales technologies de dépollution commercialisées a été testé. Les gaz d’échappement émis par les véhicules ont été analysés lors de tests sur un banc à rouleau suivant différentes conditions de conduites. Les polluants soumis aux réglementations Européennes ont été mesurés, ainsi que certains composés non-réglementés par les normes Européennes mais dont la dangerosité a été mise en évidence par la communauté scientifique.La deuxième partie de ce travail se concentre sur l’évolution en champ proche des polluants particulaires dans les heures qui suivent leur rejet dans l’atmosphère. L’effet de la dilution soudaine des gaz en sortie de pot d’échappement a été étudié en utilisant une méthodologie innovante de prélèvement directement à l’échappement. Ensuite l’évolution des particules dans les premières heures après leur rejet a été étudiée dans une chambre de simulation atmosphérique de 8 m3, construite spécifiquement dans le cadre de cette thèse pour être couplé au banc à rouleau. / Air pollution is a major urban issue, with pollutant concentrations frequently exceeding health recommendations. Vehicles are highly involved in air pollution despite the integration of pollution control systems. The objective of this research is to characterise the primary exhaust emissions of vehicles and their physical evolution in the near field to better understand the impact of primary emissions related to traffic on urban air pollution. Emissions evolution was studied in an atmospheric simulation chamber with controlled atmospheric conditions. The first part of this work aims to determine the exhaust emissions of recent vehicles that are or will be major in the French car fleet in the coming years. A sample of vehicles grouping the main commercialised depollution technologies was tested on a chassis dynamometer according to different driving conditions and the emissions from their exhaust gas were analysed. The pollutants subject to European regulations were taken into account, as well as compounds not regulated by European standards but whose toxicity has been highlighted by the scientific community.The second part of this work focuses on the near-field evolution of particulate pollutants in the hours following their release into the atmosphere. The effect of the abrupt gas dilution at the end of the exhaust has been studied using an innovative sampling methodology directly at the exhaust of the vehicles. Then the evolution of the particles in the first hours after their rejection was studied in an atmospheric simulation chamber of 8 m3, built specifically within the framework of this thesis to be coupled with the dynamometer.

[ES] A la luz de la crisis medioambiental y del creciente interés en el uso del H2 para avanzar hacia la Economía del Hidrógeno, esta tesis tiene como objetivo analizar y optimizar nuevas arquitecturas de sistemas propulsivos de FCV para aplicaciones en turismos y vehículos pesados en términos de rendimiento, durabilidad e impacto medioambiental. Para ello, se ha desarrollado una plataforma de modelado de FCV multifísica y flexible que integra un modelo de pila de combustible validado junto con los componentes del BoP, los componentes mecánicos y eléctricos del vehículo y el sistema propulsivo, un modelo de degradación de FC semi-empírico informado por tendencias físicas diseñado para ser utilizado en condiciones de conducción y un optimizador de EMS en tiempo real que ofrece el mejor rendimiento dado un diseño de sistema propulsivo y un ciclo de conducción, de tal forma que todas las arquitecturas propuestas para una aplicación determinada sean comparables en términos justos. La discusión de los resultados puede dividirse en tres partes diferentes. La primera está orientada a la optimización del rendimiento del FCS. Los resultados de esta parte ayudaron a identificar la estrategia de gestión del aire que, dado un conjunto de restricciones impuestas en los componentes del BoP, maximizaba la potencia neta del FCS (eficiencia) para cada valor de densidad de corriente. El balance energético resultante, que comprende la potencia producida por la pila de combustible, las perdidas electroquímicas y el consumo de los componentes del BoP, fue analizado y utilizado para determinar y diseñar la estrategia de control de los actuadores del BoP para condiciones de conducción. La segunda parte se centra en la evaluación y optimización, cuando es posible, de la arquitectura FCREx para aplicaciones de turismos y la configuración multi-FCS para aplicaciones de vehículos de transporte pesado. Desde el punto de vista del rendimiento, la arquitectura FCREx ofrecía un consumo mínimo de H2 con una elevada potencia de la pila de combustible y una gran capacidad de la batería, pero este diseño podría ser prohibitivo en términos de costes. Podía ofrecer hasta un 16.8-25% menos de consumo de H2 y un 6.8% menos de consumo de energía. La limitación en la dinámica de esta arquitectura aumento la durabilidad de la FC en un 110% con una penalización en el consumo de H2 del 4.7%. La arquitectura multi-FCS para aplicaciones pesadas podría funcionar con una dinámica aún menor, con un aumento de la durabilidad de la pila del 471% con una penalización en el consumo de H2 del 3.8%, ya que el perfil de conducción de los vehículos pesados suele ser menos dinámico. El control y el dimensionamiento diferencial solo podrían aportar beneficios en términos de impacto ambiental o de coste, pero no de rendimiento. La última parte considera los resultados obtenidos en términos de rendimiento y durabilidad para analizar el impacto medioambiental de cada arquitectura. La estrategia de producción de H2 afecta significativamente a las emisiones del ciclo de vida en ambas aplicaciones sobre cualquier otra elección de diseño. El diseño óptimo para la arquitectura FCREx que minimiza las emisiones tiene una alta potencia de la pila de combustible y una capacidad moderada de la batería. En el caso de la aplicación para vehículos pesados, se identificó la dinámica de control óptima para cada diseño y estrategia de producción de H2, y se determinó que la estrategia de diseño de dimensionado diferencial solo proporcionaba beneficios si se consideraba una tecnología de pila de combustible diferente para las distintas pilas integradas en el sistema propulsivo. / [CA] A la llum de la crisi mediambiental i del creixent interés en l'ús de l'H2 per a avançar cap a l'Economia de l'Hidrogen, aquesta tesi té com a objectiu analitzar i optimitzar noves arquitectures de sistemes propulsius de FCV per a aplicacions en turismes i vehicles pesants en termes de rendiment, durabilitat i impacte mediambiental. Per a això, s'ha desenvolupat una plataforma de modelatge de FCV multifísica i flexible que integra un model de pila de combustible validat juntament amb els components del BoP, els components mecànics i elèctrics del vehicle i el sistema propulsiu, un model de degradació de pila de combustible semi-empíric informat per tendències físiques dissenyat per a ser utilitzat en condicions de conducció i un optimitzador d'EMS en temps real que ofereix el millor rendiment donat un disseny de sistema propulsiu i un cicle de conducció, de tal forma que totes les arquitectures proposades per a una aplicació determinada siguen comparables en termes justos. La discussió dels resultats pot dividir-se en tres parts diferents. La primera està orientada a l'optimització del rendiment del FCS. Els resultats d'aquesta part van ajudar a identificar l'estratègia de gestió de l'aire que, donat un conjunt de restriccions imposades en els components del BoP, maximitzava la potència neta del FCS (eficiència) per a cada valor de densitat de corrent. El balanç energètic resultant, que comprén la potència produïda per la pila de combustible, les pèrdues electroquímiques i el consum dels components del BoP, va ser analitzat i utilitzat per a determinar i dissenyar l'estratègia de control dels actuadors del BoP per a condicions de conducció. La segona part se centra en l'avaluació i optimització, quan ¿es possible, de l'arquitectura FCREx per a aplicacions de turismes i la configuració multi-FCS per a aplicacions de vehicles de transport pesat. Des del punt de vista del rendiment, l'arquitectura FCREx oferia un consum mínim d'H2 amb una elevada potència de la pila de combustible i una gran capacitat de la bateria, però aquest disseny podría ser prohibitiu en termes de costos. Podia oferir fins a un 16.8-25% menys de consum d'H2 i un 6.8% menys de consum d'energia. La limitació en la dinàmica d'aquesta arquitectura va augmentar la durabilitat de la pila en un 110% amb una penalització en el consum d'H2 del 4.7%. L'arquitectura multi-FCS per a aplicacions pesades podria funcionar amb una dinàmica encara menor, amb un augment de la durabilitat de la pila del 471% i una penalització en el consum d'H2 del 3.8%, ja que el perfil de conducció dels vehicles pesants sol ser menys dinàmic. El control i el dimensionament diferencial només podrien aportar beneficis en termes d'impacte ambiental o de cost, però no de rendiment. L'última part considera els resultats obtinguts en termes de rendiment i durabilitat per a analitzar l'impacte mediambiental de cada arquitectura. L'estratègia de producció d'H2 afecta significativament a les emissions del cicle de vida en totes dues aplicacions sobre qualsevol altra elecció de disseny. El disseny òptim per a l'arquitectura FCREx que minimitza les emissions té una alta potència de la pila de combustible i una capacitat moderada de la bateria. En el cas de l'aplicació per a vehicles pesants, es va identificar la dinàmica de control `optima per a cada disseny i estratègia de producció d'H2, i es va determinar que l'estratègia de disseny de dimensionament diferencial només proporcionava beneficis si es considerava una tecnologia de pila de combustible diferent per a les diferents piles integrades en el sistema propulsiu. / [EN] In light of the environmental crisis and the growing interest in the use of H2 to advance toward the Hydrogen Economy, this thesis aims at analyzing and optimizing novel FCV powerplant architectures for passenger car and heavy-duty vehicle applications in terms of performance, durability, and environmental impact. For that purpose, a multi-physics flexible FCV modeling platform was developed integrating a validated FC stack model together with the BoP components, the mechanical and electrical components of the vehicle and powertrain, a semi-empirical physics-informed FC degradation model designed to be used in driving conditions and a real-time EMS optimizer that offers the best performance given a powerplant design and driving cycle so that all the proposed architectures for a given application are comparable. The discussion of the results can be divided into 3 different parts. The first one is oriented towards the FCS performance optimization. The results in this part helped to identify the air management strategy that, given a set of constraints imposed in the BoP components, maximized the FCS net power output (efficiency) for each value of current density. The resulting energy balance comprising the FC stack power produced, the electrochemical losses, and the consumption of the BoP components was analyzed and used to determine and design the control strategy of the BoP actuators for driving cycle conditions. The second part is focused on the evaluation and optimization, when possible, of the FCREx architecture for passenger car applications and the multi-FCS configuration for heavy-duty vehicle applications. Performance-wise the FCREx architecture offered minimum H2 consumption with high FC stack power and high battery capacity, but this design could be prohibitive in terms of costs. It could offer up to 16.8-25% lower H2 consumption and 6.8% lower energy consumption. Limiting the dynamics of this architecture increased the FC durability by 110% with a penalty in H2 consumption of 4.7%. The multi-FCS architecture for heavy-duty applications could operate with even lower dynamics, with an increase in the FC durability of 471% with a penalty in H2 consumption of 3.8%, since the driving profile of heavy-duty vehicles is usually more steady. Differential control and sizing could only provide benefits in terms of environmental impact or cost, not performance. The last part considers the results obtained in terms of performance and durability to analyze the environmental impact of each architecture. The H2 production pathway affected significantly the life cycle emissions of both applications over any other design choice. The optimum design for FCREx architecture that minimized emissions had high FC stack power and moderate battery capacity. In the case of heavy-duty application, the optimum control dynamics for each design and H2 production pathway were identified, and the differential sizing design strategy was determined to only provide benefits if different FC stack technology was considered for the various stacks in the powerplant. / López Juárez, M. (2022). Analysis of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Powerplant Architectures for Future Transport Applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/189212

Ce mémoire contribue à l’amélioration des performances d’une source de stockage hybride embarquée alimentant un véhicule électrique. La solution investiguée est composée de l’association de batteries Li-ion et de super condensateurs, dans le but d’obtenir, par rapport aux solutions classiques, un gain en masse et en durée de vie pour une certaine plage d’autonomie du véhicule. Notre objectif est de mettre à profit l’utilisation de nouvelles méthodes de gestion de la source hybride et de quantifier le gain obtenu. Un modèle multi-physique incluant les aspects électrique, thermique et vieillissement a été développé et intégré dans l’algorithme de gestion d’énergie afin d’évaluer la dégradation progressive des performances des éléments de stockage au cours des cycles de conduite selon la stratégie de gestion implantée. De nouvelles stratégies de gestion ayant pour objectif d’agir sur la durée de vie ont été évaluées. Leur impact sur les performances de la source en termes de masse, coût et durée de vie a pu être quantifié et montre bien que par une meilleure gestion des puissances, il est possible de mieux utiliser le stockeur hybride, ouvrant ainsi la voie à de nouvelles approches de gestion d’énergie pour ces systèmes. / This thesis contributes to the improvement of hybrid embedded source performances supplies an electric vehicle. The studied solution is composed of Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors hybridization, with an aim to achieve improved performances in terms of weight and lifetime over traditional solutions. Our main goal is to take the best advantage of new energy management strategies of the hybrid embedded source and quantify obtained improvements. A multi-physic model including electric, thermal and aging behaviors is developed and integrated into the algorithm of energy management in order to evaluate the gradual degradation of storage components performances during driving cycles and implemented control strategy. New energy management strategies intended to act on the lifetime of hybrid embedded source have been evaluated. Their impact on the performances of the source in terms of weight, cost and lifetime has been quantified and clearly shows that it is possible to make better use of hybrid embedded source thanks to a good power sharing, thus opening the way to new approaches of energy management for these systems.

The transport sector contributes significantly to global energy use and emissions due to its traditional dependency on fossil fuels. Climate change, security of energy supply and increasing mobility demand is mobilising governments around the challenges of sustainable transport. Immediate opportunities to reduce emissions exist through the adoption of new bus technologies, e.g. advanced powertrains. This thesis analysed energy use and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of conventional, hybrid-electric, and plug-in hybrid-electric city buses including two-axle, articulated, and biarticulated chassis types (A total of 6 bus types) for the operation phase (Tank-to-Wheel) in Curitiba, Brazil. The systems analysis tool – Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) and a carbon balance method were applied. Seven bus routes and six operation times for each (i.e. 42 driving cycles) are considered based on real-world data. The results show that hybrid-electric and plug-in hybrid-electric two-axle city buses consume 30% and 58% less energy per distance (MJ/km) compared to a conventional two-axle city bus (i.e. 17.46 MJ/km). Additionally, the energy use per passenger-distance (MJ/pkm) of a conventional biarticulated city bus amounts to 0.22 MJ/pkm, which is 41% and 24% lower compared to conventional and hybrid-electric two-axle city buses, respectively. This is mainly due to the former’s large passenger carrying capacity. Large passenger carrying capacities can reduce energy use (MJ/pkm) if the occupancy rate of the city bus is sufficient high. Bus routes with fewer stops decrease energy use by 10-26% depending on the city bus, because of reductions in losses from acceleration and braking. The CO2 emissions are linearly proportional to the estimated energy use following from the carbon balance method, e.g. CO2 emissions for a conventional two-axle city bus amount to 1299 g/km. Further results show that energy use of city bus operation depends on the operation time due to different traffic conditions and driving cycle characteristics. An additional analysis shows that energy use estimations can vary strongly between considered driving cycles from real-world data. The study concludes that advanced powertrains with electric drive capabilities, large passenger carrying capacities and bus routes with a fewer number of bus stops are beneficial in terms of reducing energy use and CO2 emissions of city bus operation in Curitiba.