Urbanisation and infrastructure developments impact on the surrounding natural environment and threaten biodiversity. The fragmentation of natural habitats in particular is a major obstacle for the preservation of biodiversity in a long-term perspective. In the planning process, both the environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment processes play a central role in the identification and prediction of impacts on biodiversity. At the same time, the devel-opment of GIS technologies and GIS-based ecological models offer new perspectives in the elaboration of predictions. In order to analyse current practices and identify the need for im-provements in the environmental impact process, a review of environmental impact assessment reports was carried out. Further, a review of existing GIS methods and GIS-based ecological models is presented. The results of the review of environmental impact assessment reports show a lack of predictions in current biodiversity assessments. These asssessments often concentrate on impacts at the local scale, failing to consider large-scale and widespread impacts at the ecosys-tem and landscape levels. The review of GIS methods and GIS-based ecological models demon-strate the possibility to generate quantitative predictions for a specific area as well as for it’s sur-rounding environment. At the same time, the flexibility and reproducibility of such methods would allow predictions to be made for different alternatives or scenarios, therefore providing decision makers with relevant information of potential impacts on biodiversity. This would, in turn, result in an improved integration of biodiversity issues in physical planning and contribute to a sustainable development. / QC 20101129

<p>Additive manufacturing (AM) can be an advantageous substitute to various traditional manufacturing techniques. Due to the ability to rapidly create products, AM has been traditionally used to prototype more efficiently. As the industry has progressed, however, use cases have gone beyond prototyping into production of complex parts with unique geometries. Amongst the most popular of AM processes is fused deposition modeling (FDM). FDM fabricates products through an extrusion technique where plastic filament is heated to the glass transition temperature and extruded layer by layer onto a build platform to construct the desired part. The purpose of this research is to elaborate on the potential of this technology, while considering environmental impact as it becomes more widespread throughout industry, research, and academia.</p> <p>Although AM consumes resources more conservatively than traditional methodologies, it is not free from having environmental impacts. Several studies have shown that additive manufacturing can affect human and environmental health by emitting particles of a dynamic size range into the surrounding environment during a print. To begin this study, chapters investigate emission profiles and characterization of emissions from FDM 3D printers with the intention of developing a better understanding of the impact from such devices. Background work is done to confirm the occurrence of particle emission from FDM using acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic filament. An aluminum bodied 3D printer is enclosed in a chamber and placed in a Class 1 cleanroom where measurements are conducted using high temporal resolution electrical low-pressure impactor (ELPI), scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS), and optical particle sizer (OPS), which combined measure particles of a size range 6-500nm. Tests were done using the NIST standard test part and a honeycomb infill cube. Results from this study show that particle emissions are closely related to filament residence time in the extruder while less related to extruding speed. An initial spike of particle concentration is observed immediately after printing, which is likely a result of the long time required to heat the extruder and bed to the desired temperature. Upon conclusion of this study, it is theorized that particles may be formed through vapor condensation and coagulation after being released into the surrounding environment.</p> <p>With confirmation of FDM ultrafine particle emission at notable concentrations, an effort was consequently placed on diagnosing the primary cause of emission and energy consumption based on developed hypotheses. Experimental data suggests that particle emission is mainly the result of condensing and agglomerating semi-volatile organic compounds. The initial emission spike occurs when there is dripping of semi-liquid filament from the heated nozzle and/or residue left in the nozzle between prints; this supports the previously stated hypothesis regarding residence time. However, the study shows that while printing speed and material flow influence particle emission rate, the effects from these factors are relatively insignificant. Power profile analysis indicates that print bed heating and component temperature maintaining are the leading contributors to energy consumption for FDM printers, making time the primary variable driving energy input.</p> <p>To better understand the severity of FDM emissions, further investigation is necessary to diligence the makeup of the process output flows. By collecting exhaust discharge from a Makerbot Replicator 2x printing ABS filament and diffusing it through a type 1 water solution, we are able to investigate the chemical makeup of these compounds. Additional exploration is done by performing a filament wash to investigate emissions that may already be present before extrusion. Using solid phase micro-extraction, contaminants are studied using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) thermal desorption. Characterization of the collected emission offers more comprehensive knowledge of the environmental and human health impacts of this AM process.</p> <p>Classification of the environmental performance of various manufacturing technologies can be achieved by analyzing their input and output material, as well as energy flows. The unit process life cycle inventory (UPLCI) is a proficient approach to developing reusable models capable of calculating these flows. The UPLCI models can be connected to estimate the total material and energy consumption of, and emissions from, product manufacturing based on a process plan. The final chapter focuses on using the knowledge gained from this work in developing UPLCI model methodology for FDM, and applying it further to the second most widely used AM process: stereolithography (SLA). The model created for the FDM study considers material input/output flows from ABS plastic filament. Energy input/output flows come from the running printer, step motors, heated build plate, and heated extruder. SLA also fabricates parts layer by layer, but by the use of a photosensitive liquid resin which solidifies when cured under the exposure of ultraviolet light. Model material input/output flows are sourced from the photosensitive liquid resin, while energy input/output flows are generated from (i) the projector used as the ultraviolet light source and (ii) the step motors. As shown in this work, energy flow is mostly time dependent; material flows, on the other hand, rely more on the nature of the fabrication process. While a focus on FDM is asserted throughout this study, the developed UPLCI models show how conclusions drawn from this work can be applied to different forms of AM processes in future work.</p>

Gruvindustrin växer i norra Sverige och sedan början av 2000-talet har ansökningar om bearbetningskoncessioner ökat drastiskt. Planerande av gruvor kan dock vara problematiska när de sker i renskötselområden och företrädare för det samiska samhället har kritiserat gruvbolagen för att inte ta hänsyn till samebyarnas synpunkter i sina miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar för nya gruvprojekt. Denna rapport ämnar synliggöra samebyn Jåhkågasska tjielldes perspektiv angående påverkan för deras rennäring av en eventuell gruvetablering i Kallak/Gállok. Med hjälp av en litteraturstudie samt kartläggning i ArcGIS har en scenarioanalys gjorts för att kunna beskriva och bedöma möjliga framtidsscenarier för Jåhkågasska tjielldes rennäring. Därefter har en jämförelse gjorts mellan scenarioanalysen och gruvbolagets syn på gruvans påverkan på rennäringen. Scenarioanalysen visade att samebyn ser en större påverkan på rennäringen än vad gruvbolaget gör. Bidragande orsaker till det är att gruvbolagets miljökonsekvensbeskrivning saknar utredd påverkan av kumulativa effekter, den har en för snäv systemgräns samt att den inte har tagit med berörda renskötares kunskaper om rennäring. Detta gör att det saknas en helhetsbild av påverkan på rennäringen, vilket gör att olika uppfattningar och konflikter uppstått. / The mining industry is expanding in northern Sweden and ever since the beginning of the 21st century the applications for exploitation concessions have increased rapidly. However, the planning of mines can be problematic when it's done in reindeer husbandry areas and representatives for the sami society have criticized mining companies for not taking the sami people’s aspect into account in their environmental impact assessments for new mining projects. This report aims to make visible the perspective of the Sami village of Jåhkågasska tjiellde regarding the impacts on their reindeer husbandry due to a potential mining establishment in Kallak/Gállok. With the help of a literary study and maps created in ArcGIS, a scenario analysis has been made to describe and evaluate possible scenarios for the future of the reindeer husbandry in Jåhkågasska tjielldes. After that, a comparison between the scenario analysis and the mining company's view of the mine’s impact on the reindeer husbandry has been made. The scenario analysis showed that the Sami village sees a greater impact on the reindeer husbandry than the mining company. Causal factors for the different views are that the company's environmental impact assessment lack an evaluation of impacts of cumulative effects, has a too narrow system boundary and does not include the reindeer herders knowledge about reindeer husbandry. This leads to an absence of an overall picture of the impacts on the reindeer husbandry, which has led to different opinions and conflicts.

環境影響評估法公民訴訟條款的解釋與操作在我國訴訟實務中已發展十餘年，文獻上亦多有討論。但是在觀察過我國環評案件的公民訴訟判決，尤其是近幾年頗受矚目的美麗灣度假村案，就可知道縱使環保團體與周圍居民以公民訴訟取得勝訴判決，後續仍不斷產生撤銷訴訟的現象，代表開發案件之核心爭議並未被終局解決。另外，經由比較美國公民訴訟的起源與發展，就會發現我國公民訴訟制定在環評法中是一項有問題的立法。在美國制度原型中公民訴訟條款並非搭配環評制度運作，而我國將兩者結合，似乎並未釐清其中制度目的的差異。 本文欲從環評法的原理原則，也就是以風險管理與預防原則為基礎，說明環評法在環境法規中之角色與作用。並透過介紹美國、德國與中國的環評制度與相關訴訟制度，如美國的公民訴訟、德國的團體訴訟與中國的公益訴訟，進而釐清公民訴訟真正的制度目的，與探討監督環評制度的正確模式。最後再回到我國法，分析環評法與公民訴訟條款與整理訴訟實務案件，了解我國目前環評法公民訴訟條款的操作現況，並提出批評與檢討。 就結論而言，本文認為環評制度做為風險管理中之風險評估與預防原則之體現，不應以公民訴訟為司法監督管道。公民訴訟僅應用在監督風險管理決定之開發案件，規避環評與環評審查有瑕疵之案件都應遵循傳統行政訴訟，對開發許可提出撤銷訴訟，以達成紛爭一次解決並減少人民訟累。 / Citizen suit in Environmental Impact Assessment Act (hereinafter EIAA) in Taiwan has been developed and discussed over ten years. By the analysis of the relative cases, several issues in our citizen suit legislation would be discovered. Especially in the case of Beautiful Bay Resort, which was once the focus of public attention , the problem of the citizen suit in EIAA was been highlighted that the main issue wasn’t been solved, even though the environmental group won this citizen suit. Another problem is that compare to american legislation, the combination of EIAA and citizen suit clause is inappropriate because these two systems are established on different legal theories. In the thesis, the basic theories of the EIAA, that is, the risk management system and precautionary principle, would be illustrated at first. Then the american, german and chinese relative legal systems would be introduced in the second session in order to clarify the real purpose of the citizen suit and environmental impact assessment. In the third session, the citizen suit clause and the cases in EIAA in Taiwan would be explained. In conclusion, the opinion in this thesis is that the citizen suit could only be applied to the case in which the risk management decision has been made. Otherwise people should institute the revocation of administrative action to avoid the litigation diseconomy.

In the environmental impact assessment (EIA) field, much attention is paid to the process leading up to the granting of an environmental authorization, but very little is given to what happens after the consent decision is granted. This study aimed to address this lack through the implementation of an EIA follow-up procedure in a region of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Follow-up focused on assessing the amount of non-compliance with EIA consent conditions as well as the overall impact that projects had had on the environment. The results of this follow-up process were then used to develop a risk screening tool that could be used to screen out new EIA applications that were likely to require follow-up to control default or impact. Projects that showed the greatest amount of default were those submitted by local municipal proponents for basic infrastructure type activities such as sewage treatment works and low-income housing developments. Private companies that compete in the open market presented the lowest default risk. Default with consent conditions ranged between 0% and 100% with an average rate of default of 49%. The overall environmental impact for the majority (58%) of projects followed-up on was low (on a 5 point scale of low to high), with only 1% of projects scoring high on impact. The study found a moderate positive correlation between default and impact (rs = 0.48) although a significant percentage (39%) of projects scored high on default but low on impact. Follow-up appears to have had a positive effect on reducing the average amounts of default and to a lesser extent the degree of impact. The risk screening tool developed is promising with statistically significant matches between predicted and actual default and impact scores for three out of the four test samples. / Geography / D. Phil. (Geography)

Biodiversity considerations form an essential component of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), especially in areas with both a high biodiversity value and development pressure such as the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) in South Africa. Limited research has been conducted within the South African context on the quality of biodiversity inputs to EIA. The aim of this research was to evaluate the quality of biodiversity input to EIA in the CFR. To address this aim, a customised review package was generated to evaluate the quality of 26 Biodiversity Impact Assessment (BIA) reports in the CFR. The results were then compared with international trends of biodiversity input to EIA in order to show how prevalent such trends are within an area with high biodiversity value. This comparison showed that the quality of biodiversity input to EIA in the CFR generally concur with inadequacies identified in international EIA literature. Typically, significant weaknesses identified during the review were the lack of public participation and an insufficient evaluation of alternatives. Specialists also failed to develop adequate monitoring programmes. Furthermore, a very pertinent limitation was that, in general, assessments are conducted during inappropriate seasons and over insufficient time periods. However, some variations to the international trends are also present within the Region. For example, a particular strength was that a precautionary approach was adopted by most of the specialists to avoid negative impacts on biodiversity. In addition, specialists did not merely focus on lower levels (species and habitats) of biodiversity, but incorporated ecological processes in assessment techniques. The inadequacies identified in this dissertation pose particular challenges for biodiversity management and conservation practices. The development and implementation of mechanisms such as Best Practice Guidelines and improved biodiversity related legislation is proposed to improve biodiversity input to EIA. / M Environmental Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

In environmental impact assessment (EIA), accident risk should be considered as one impact. However, few studies have compared assessed risk levels with documented accidents. There is thus a need for assessing accuracy of risk assessment methodologies. The aim of this study was to develop and examine a risk assessment guideline based on environmental assessment. The guideline examination was carried out along the railway and the road between Kiruna and Narvik, Northern Scandinavia. The examined hazards were avalanches, debris flows, rock falls, slush flows, torrents, moose and reindeer. Documented accidents were quantified into an accident level. For each hazard type, six sections/sites were assessed. The propensities of these hazards were analysed through environmental assessments, especially by utilising geomorphology. Then, the accident densities along the sections/sites were compared with assessed accident phase indices describing risk and hazard in both spatial and temporal dimensions. The average uncertainty factors for both the risk and the hazard indices were about 5. This implies a fairly good precision. Risk and hazard indices were also rated and compared to the accident density rates. Thereafter, railway and road information was split up as different proposal alternatives in an EIA context. The total risk for each proposal was compared with the total accident density. The risk assessment guideline proved to be cost-efficient, rapid and relatively reliable in comparing accident risk.

In environmental impact assessment (EIA), accident risk should be considered as one impact. However, few studies have compared assessed risk levels with documented accidents. There is thus a need for assessing accuracy of risk assessment methodologies. The aim of this study was to develop and examine a risk assessment guideline based on environmental assessment. The guideline examination was carried out along the railway and the road between Kiruna and Narvik, Northern Scandinavia. The examined hazards were avalanches, debris flows, rock falls, slush flows, torrents, moose and reindeer. Documented accidents were quantified into an accident level. For each hazard type, six sections/sites were assessed. The propensities of these hazards were analysed through environmental assessments, especially by utilising geomorphology. Then, the accident densities along the sections/sites were compared with assessed accident phase indices describing risk and hazard in both spatial and temporal dimensions. The average uncertainty factors for both the risk and the hazard indices were about 5. This implies a fairly good precision. Risk and hazard indices were also rated and compared to the accident density rates. Thereafter, railway and road information was split up as different proposal alternatives in an EIA context. The total risk for each proposal was compared with the total accident density. The risk assessment guideline proved to be cost-efficient, rapid and relatively reliable in comparing accident risk.

Detta är en fallstudie där SKBs genomförda samråd i Östhammars kommun under åren 2002-2011 har studerats. Inför den ansökan som SKB lämnade till mark- och miljödomstolen 2011 behövde bolaget upprätta en miljökonsekvensbeskrivning (MKB). För att kunna göra detta behövde samråd genomföras. Det planerade slutförvaret är en komplex verksamhet och kan upplevas besvärlig att samråda kring, både av verksamhetsutövaren och av deltagare. Syftet med samrådet är att få in synpunkter och frågor kring den tänkta verksamheten som sedan kan användas till att utveckla och förbättra miljökonsekvensbeskrivningen. Vanliga sätt att bedriva samråd är att hålla informationsmöten, vilket också var det sätt som SKB valde. Det material som finns från dessa samråd är sammanställningar som SKB själva har gjort. När SKB lämnade in sin ansökan lämnades det också in en samrådsredogörelse där de genomförda samråden beskrivs. SKB har genomfört sina samråd på ett ganska förutsägbart sätt. Då det bara finns skriftligt material från samråden så är det svårt att avgöra om de har återgivits på ett rättvisande sätt. Det är med tveksamhet som syftet med samråd kan ses som uppfyllt. / This is a case study where Swedish nuclear fuel and waste management company's (SKB) consultations in the municipality of Östhammar during the years 2002-2011 have been studied. Together with the application submitted by SKB to the Land and Environmental Court in 2011, the company needed an environmental impact assessment (EIA). In order to do this, consultations was a necessity. The planned repository is a complex activity and may be difficult to consult, both by the operator and by participants. The purpose of the consultation is to bring in comments and questions about the intended activities, which can then be used to develop and improve the environmental impact assessment. Common ways of conducting consultations are holding information meetings, which was also the way SKB chose. The material available from these consultations is summaries that SKB itself has made. When SKB submitted its application, a consultation report was also submitted, describing the consultations conducted. SKB has conducted its consultations in a fairly predictable manner. Since there is only written material from the consultations, it is difficult to determine whether they have been reproduced in a fair way. It is with hesitation that the purpose of the consultations can be seen as fulfilled. / <p>2019-09-13</p>

A Política Nacional do Meio Ambiente PNMA, com seus fins e mecanismos de formulação e aplicação, foi instituída pela Lei nº 6.938, de 31 de agosto de 1981, e tem como um de seus instrumentos a Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental (AIA), que analisa as consequências ambientais de uma ação atual ou proposta, visando garantir a viabilidade ambiental de empreendimentos previamente à sua implantação. A AIA é o instrumento da PNMA que subsidia a gestão ambiental empresarial, uma vez que essa deve ser iniciada na fase de projeto e continuar de forma integrada durante as atividades de implantação, operação e desativação dos empreendimentos. Nessa vertente, uma integração de procedimentos entre a AIA, direcionada ao empreendimento, e as normas da Série ISO 14000 - Gestão Ambiental -é necessária. Entretanto, verifica-se que há um paradoxo entre a teoria e a prática dessas ferramentas de gestão. Assim, o objetivo desta pesquisa é realizar um comparativo entre as características técnicas da AIA e as características técnicas das normas da Série ISO 14000, sugerindo potenciais oportunidades de integração entre os dois instrumentos. Para tanto, foram realizadas duas revisões bibliográficas: uma relacionada à AIA e outra às normas técnicas da Série ISO 14000, que identificou as possibilidades de integração entre essas duas ferramentas de gestão ambiental. Esta pesquisa é classificada metodologicamente: do ponto de vista de sua natureza, como pesquisa básica; do ponto de vista da forma de abordagem do problema, como pesquisa qualitativa; do ponto de vista de seus objetivos, como pesquisa exploratória e descritiva; do ponto de vista de procedimentos técnicos, como pesquisa bibliográfica. Os resultados da comparação entre os instrumentos apresentam informações que poderão subsidiar a integração das características técnicas da AIA com as das normas técnicas da Série ISO 14000. / The National Environment Policy, with its purposes and mechanisms of formulation and implementation, was instituted by Law nº. 6938 of August 31, 1981. The Policy has as one of its instruments the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which examines the environmental consequences of a current or proposed action in order to ensure the environmental feasibility of projects previously to their deployment. The EIA is the instrument of Policy which subsidizes environmental management business, since that should be initiated at the design stage and continue seamlessly during the deployment activities, operation and deactivation of the enterprises. In this instance, integration between the EIA procedures, directed the project, and the standards of ISO 14000 Series - Environmental Management is necessary. However, it appears that there is a paradox between theory and practice of these management tools. Thus, the objective of this research is to make a comparison between the technical characteristics of the EIA and the technical characteristics of ISO 14000 Series, suggesting potential opportunities for integration between the two instruments. To this end, were performed two literature reviews: one related to EIA and other related to the technical standards of the ISO 14000 series, which identified the possibilities for integration between the two environmental management tools. The research is methodologically classified: from the point of view of nature as basic research, from the point of view of how to approach the problem as a qualitative, from the point of view of objectives as exploratory and descriptive, from the point of view of technical procedures will be classified as literature review. The results of the comparison between the instruments provide information that could subsidize the integration of the technical characteristics of EIA with the technical characteristics of ISO 14000 series.