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No / Mammalian glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) is generated from two genes, GSK3alpha and GSK3beta, while a splice variant of GSK3beta (GSK3beta2), containing a 13 amino acid insert, is enriched in neurons. GSK3alpha and GSK3beta deletions generate distinct phenotypes. Here, we show that phosphorylation of CRMP2, CRMP4, beta-catenin, c-Myc, c-Jun and some residues on tau associated with Alzheimer's disease, is altered in cortical tissue lacking both isoforms of GSK3. This confirms that they are physiological targets for GSK3. However, deletion of each GSK3 isoform produces distinct substrate phosphorylation, indicating that each has a different spectrum of substrates (e.g. phosphorylation of Thr509, Thr514 and Ser518 of CRMP is not detectable in cortex lacking GSK3beta, yet normal in cortex lacking GSK3alpha). Furthermore, the neuron-enriched GSK3beta2 variant phosphorylates phospho-glycogen synthase 2 peptide, CRMP2 (Thr509/514), CRMP4 (Thr509), Inhibitor-2 (Thr72) and tau (Ser396), at a lower rate than GSK3beta1. In contrast phosphorylation of c-Myc and c-Jun is equivalent for each GSK3beta isoform, providing evidence that differential substrate phosphorylation is achieved through alterations in expression and splicing of the GSK3 gene. Finally, each GSK3beta splice variant is phosphorylated to a similar extent at the regulatory sites, Ser9 and Tyr216, and exhibit identical sensitivities to the ATP competitive inhibitor CT99021, suggesting upstream regulation and ATP binding properties of GSK3beta1 and GSK3beta2 are similar.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / ALDH isoenzymes are known to impact the sensitivity of certain neoplastic cells toward cyclophosphamides and its analogs. Despite its bone marrow toxicity, cyclophos-phamide is still used to treat various recalcitrant forms of cancer. When activated, cyclo-phosphamide forms aldophosphamide that can spontaneously form the toxic phospho-ramide mustard, an alkylating agent unless detoxified by ALDH isozymes to the carbox-yphosphamide metabolite. Prior work has demonstrated that the ALDH1A1 and ALDH3A1 isoenzymes can convert aldophosphamide to carboxyphosphamide. This has also been verified by over expression and siRNA knockdown studies. Selective small molecule inhibitors for these ALDH isoenzymes are not currently available. We hypothe-sized that novel and selective small molecule inhibitors of ALDH3A1 would enhance cancer cells’ sensitivity toward cyclophosphamide. If successful, this approach can widen the therapeutic treatment window for cyclophosphamides; permitting lower effective dos-ing regimens with reduced toxicity. An esterase based absorbance assay was optimized in a high throughput setting and 101, 000 compounds were screened and two new selective inhibitors for ALDH3A1, which have IC50 values of 0.2 µM (CB7) and 16 µM (CB29) were discovered. These two compounds compete for aldehyde binding, which was vali-dated both by kinetic and crystallographic studies. Structure activity relationship dataset has helped us determine the basis of potency and selectivity of these compounds towards ALDH3A1 activity. Our data is further supported by mafosfamide (an analog of cyclo-phosphamide) chemosensitivity data, performed on lung adenocarcinoma (A549) and gli-oblastoma (SF767) cell lines. Overall, I have identified two compounds, which inhibit ALDH3A1’s dehydrogenase activity selectively and increases sensitization of ALDH3A1 positive cells to aldophosphamide and its analogs. This may have the potential in improving chemotherapeutic efficacy of cyclophosphamide as well as to help us understand better the role of ALDH3A1 in cells. Future work will focus on testing these compounds on other cancer cell lines that involve ALDH3A1 expression as a mode of chemoresistance.

La tagatose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase de Streptococcus pyogenes est une aldolase qui fait preuve d'un remarquable manque de spécificité vis à vis de ses substrats. En effet, elle catalyse le clivage réversible du tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate (TBP), mais également du fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), du sorbose-1,6-bisphosphate et du psicose-1,6-bisphosphate, quatre stéréoisomères, en dihydroxyacétone phosphate (DHAP) et en glycéraldéhyde-3-phosphate (G3P). Aldolase de classe I, qui donc catalyse sa réaction en formant un intermédiaire covalent obligatoire, ou base de Schiff, avec son susbtrat, la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes partage 14 % d’identité avec l’enzyme modèle de cette famille, la FBP aldolase de muscle de mammifère. Bien que le mécanime catalytique de la FBP aldolase des mammifères ait été examiné en détails et qu’il soit approprié d’en tirer des renseignements quant à celui de la TBP aldolase, le manque singulier de stéréospécificité de cette dernière tant dans le sens du clivage que celui de la condensation n’est toujours pas éclairci. Afin de mettre à jour les caractéristiques du mécanisme enzymatique, une étude structurale de la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes, un pathogène humain extrêmement versatile, a été entreprise. Elle a permis la résolution des structures de l’enzyme native et mutée, en complexe avec des subtrats et des inhibiteurs compétitifs, à des résolutions comprises entre 1.8 Å et 2.5 Å. Le trempage des cristaux de TBP aldolase native et mutante dans une solution saturante de FBP ou TBP a en outre permis de piéger un authentique intermédiaire covalent lié à la Lys205, la lysine catalytique. La determination des profils pH de la TBP aldolase native et mutée, entreprise afin d'évaluer l’influence du pH sur la réaction de clivage du FBP et TBP et ìdentifier le(s) résidu(s) impliqué(s), en conjonction avec les données structurales apportées par la cristallographie, ont permis d’identifier sans équivoque Glu163 comme résidu responsable du clivage. En effet, le mode de liaison sensiblement différent des ligands utilisés selon la stéréochimie en leur C3 et C4 permet à Glu163, équivalent à Glu187 dans la FBP aldolase de classe I, d’abstraire le proton sur l’hydroxyle du C4 et ainsi d’amorcer le clivage du lien C3-C4. L’étude du mécanimse inverse, celui de la condensation, grâce par exemple à la structure de l’enzyme native en complexe avec ses substrats à trois carbones le DHAP et le G3P, a en outre permis d’identifier un isomérisme du substrat G3P comme possible cause de la synthèse des isomères en C4 par cette enzyme. Ce résultat, ainsi que la decouverte d’un possible isomérisme cis-trans autour du lien C2-C3 de la base de Schiff formée avec le DHAP, identifié précedemment, permet de cerner presque complètement les particularités du mécanisme de cette enzyme et d’expliquer comment elle est capable de synthétiser les quatres stéréoisomères 3(S/R), 4(S/R). De plus, la résolution de ces structures a permis de mettre en évidence trois régions très mobiles de la protéine, ce qui pourrait être relié au rôle postulé de son isozyme chez S. pyogenes dans la régulation de l’expression génétique et de la virulence de la bactérie. Enfin, la résolution de la structure du mutant Lys229→Met de la FBP aldolase de muscle en complexe avec la forme cyclique du FBP, de même que des études cristallographiques sur le mutant équivalent Lys205→Met de la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes et des expériences de calorimétrie ont permis d’identifier deux résidus particuliers, Ala31 et Asp33 chez la FBP aldolase, comme possible cause de la discrimination de cette enzyme contre les substrats 3(R) et 4(S), et ce par encombrement stérique des substrats cycliques. La cristallographie par rayons X et la cinétique enzymatique ont ainsi permis d'avancer dans l'élucidation du mécanisme et des propriétés structurales de cette enzyme aux caractéristiques particulières. / Tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase from Streptococcus pyogenes is a class I aldolase that shows a lack of stereospecificity that is rare in enzymes in general, and in aldolases in particular. This aldolase catalyzes the reversible cleavage of tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate (TBP), fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), sorbose-1,6-bisphosphate and psicose-1,6-bisphosphate, four stereoisomers, in dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). A class I aldolase, the aldolase TBP S. pyogenes shares 14 % identity with the model enzyme of this family, mammalian FBP aldolase. Although the catalytic mechanism of the class I FBP aldolase has been examined in detail and it is appropriate to infer information as to the class I TBP aldolase, the singular lack of specificity of the latter enzyme both in the direction of cleavage and condensation is still not elucidated. To better comprehend the characteristics of the enzymatic mechanism, a structural study of the TBP aldolase of S. pyogenes, an extremely versatile human pathogen, has been undertaken. It has allowed the resolution of high resolution structures of the native and mutated enzyme in complex with subtrates and competitive inhibitors. These same structures allowed us to gain information as to the active site of the enzyme in general and the catalytic residues in particular. TBP aldolase native and mutated soaked in a saturated solution of FBP or TBP also trapped an iminium intermediate covalenty bound to Lys205, the Schiff base-forming lysine. The determination of the pH profiles of the native and mutated enzyme, carried out to assess the influence of pH on FBP and TBP cleavage and identify the residue(s) involved, in conjunction with the structural data provided by crystallography, identified unequivocally Glu163, corresponding to Glu187 in FBP aldolase, as the residue responsible for substrate cleavage. The substantially different binding mode of the ligands, according to the stereochemistry of their C3 and C4 carbons, indeed allows Glu163 to abstract the proton in C3-OH and thus initiate C3-C4 bond cleavage. The study of the inverse mechanism, the condensation one, using for instance the crystallographic structure of native TBP aldolase in complex with DHAP and G3P, its three carbons substrates, has led us to believe that a possible isomerism of the G3P substrate was the reason for the synthesis of both C4 isomers by this enzyme. This result, as well as the discovery of a possible cis-trans isomerism around the C2-C3 bond of the Schiff base formed with DHAP, identified previously, almost completely elucidated the features of this enzyme`s mechanism. In addition, these structures have highlighted three highly mobile regions of the protein, which may be related to the role of its isozyme in the regulation of gene expression and virulence in S. pyogenes. Lastly, the resolution of the structure of the FBP aldolase mutant Lys229 → Met in complex with the cyclic form of FBP, as well as crystallographic studies of the corresponding mutant in TBP aldolase, Lys205→Met and ITC experiments, allowed the identification of two particular residues, Ala31 and Asp33 in FBP aldolase, as responsible for this enzyme discrimination against 3(R) 4(S) substrates, by steric hindrance of the cyclic substrates. X-ray crystallography, enzyme kinetics and isothermal calorimetry thus enabled advances in the elucidation of the mechanism and structural properties of this enzyme with singular characteristics.

Mapeamento dos subsítios de α-amilase de Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri envolvidos na interação com o substrato A família das enzimas α-amilases é um modelo experimental interessante para o estudo das interações entre os aminoácidos e seus ligantes, já que estas enzimas apresentam especificidade variável, são frequentemente alvos de estudos por mutagênese e há estruturas cristalinas disponíveis para alguns membros da família. A proposta deste trabalho foi o mapear subsítios da α-amilase de Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (AXA) envolvidos na interação com substratos, através de comparações estruturais, mutagêneses sítio-dirigidas, análises de parâmetros cinéticos sobre amido e do padrão de clivagem sobre p-nitrofenil malto-oligossacarideos (PNPG7, PNPG5, PNPG4). Foi criado um modelo estrutural para AXA a partir da estrutura tridimensional da α-amilase de Alteromonas haloplanctis (Aghajari et al., 1998). O modelo de AXA foi sobreposto na estrutura da α-amilase pancreática de porco (Qian et al., 1994) e 11 resíduos foram selecionados e mutados para alanina. As α-amilases recombinantes mutantes e selvagem foram secretadas pela levedura Pichia pastoris GS115, apresentando uma massa molecular aparente de 45 kDa. Todos os mutantes analisados reduziram em maior ou menor grau a atividade catalítica da enzima sobre amido e p-nitrofenil maltooligossacarideos. Mutações dos resíduos H88, F136, D196, E223, D295 e N299, deletaram a atividade enzimática, indicando que suas cadeias laterais são essenciais para o desempenho catalítico da enzima. As análises cinéticas e estruturais sugerem fortemente que D196, E223 e D295 são os resíduos catalíticos. Substituições das cadeias laterais de C157, H200, G227, T230 e H294 reduziram a eficiência catalítica (kcat/Km) da α-amilase sobre o substrato amido para, respectivamente, 28%, 41%, 84%, 81% e 51%. As mutações em G227 e T230 foram menos importantes para a atividade da enzima e afinidade pelo amido, entretanto, estes resíduos mostraram-se importantes para a estabilização de complexos com substratos curtos (pNPG4). Os resultados indicam que o sítio ativo de AXA é formado por, no mínimo, seis subsítios. As interações dos anéis de glicose com os subsítios +2 e -2 são favorecidas em relação às interações nos subsítios -3 e +3, respectivamente, e a interação do anel de glicose no subsítio -3 é favorecida em relação à interação no subsítio +3. A enzima selvagem diva preferencialmente a terceira ligação glicosídica de p-nitrofenil maltooligossacarideos. Como produtos de hidrólise a enzima libera maltopentaose, maltotetraose, maltotriose, maltose e glicose. / The α-amylase family is an interesting group for structure/function relationship investigation, as this family exhibits a variable deavage patterm, several crystal structures are available, and its members were studied by mutagenesis. The aim of this study was the mapping of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri α-amylase (AXA) subsites involved in substrate binding, using structural comparison, site-directed mutagenesis and lcinetics analyses. A structural model for AXA was created from the three-dimensional structure of the α-amylase from Alteromonas haloplanctis (Aghajari et al., 1998). This model was superimposed on the structure ofthe pig pancreatic α-amylase, PPA (Qian et. al., 1994), and 11 residues were selected and changed to alanine. Wild type and mutant AXA were secreted by Pichia pastoris strain GS115 cells and showed apparent molecular mass of 45 kDa. All mutants have reduced α-amylase activity on starch and 4-nitrophenyl maltooligosaccharides (pNPG7, PNPG5 and PNPG4) at different levels. Mutation of residues H88, F136, D196, E223, D295 and N299 indicate their essential role by complete loss of activity. Kinetic and structural analyses strongly suggested that D196, E223 and D295 are the catalytic residues. The substitution of the side chain of C157, H200, G227, T230 and H294 reduced the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of α-amylase on starch to respectively 28%, 41%, 84%, 81% and 51%. Although G227 and T230 were not much important for activity and binding on starch, these residues were important for stabilization of complexes with short substrates (PNPG4). The results indicate that AXA\'s active site is composed of at least six sugar binding subsites. The binding of the glucoses at subsites +2 and -2 are favored against binding at subsites -3 and +3, respectively. The binding of glucose at subsite -3 is favored against binding at subsite +3. The wild type enzyme primarily hydrolyzes the third glucosidic bond in PNPG7, PNPG5 and PNPG4 and the products of hydrolysis were maltopentaose, maltotetraose, maltotriose, maltose and glucose.

El present treball de recerca s'emmarca en un projecte Europeu anomenat E.D.E.N. (Enzyme Discovery in hybrid aspen for fibre ENgineering, QLK5-CT-2001-00443), l'objectiu del qual és la identificació de nous enzims vegetals per entendre amb major profunditat els processos de formació i modificació de les fibres vegetals per abordar en el futur la millora dels paràmetres de qualitat d'aquestes fibres, mitjançant la generació de línies transgèniques de plantes. En el present projecte es pretén aprofundir en el coneixement de les xiloglucà endotransglicosilases (XET), enzims claus en la construcció i modificació controlada de la xarxa de xiloglucà cel·lulosa, estudiant el seu mecanisme d'acció i la seva especificitat per substrat. En aquest treball s'estudia una XET de Populus tremula x tremuloides, concretament la XET16A (Ptt-XET16A). Es dissenya i es valida un nou assaig enzimàtic mitjançant electroforesis capil·lar (HPCE), que permet l'estudi cinètic de les XET, emprant oligosacàrids de baix pes molecular de xiloglucà amb una estructura coneguda. Aquest substrats han estat sintetitzats en el present treball i també per l'equip del Dr. Driguez en el CERMAV-CNRS. Es determina que el màxim d'activitat de la Ptt-XET16A es dóna entre pH 5 i 5.5 i entre 30 i 40 ºC. Es demostra que aquest enzim actua mitjançant un mecanisme cinètic bi-bi ping-pong, en el que l'acceptor actua com a inhibidor competitiu del donador unint-se a l'enzim lliure i en el que, depenent del donador emprat, aquest també poc actuar com a inhibidor competitiu de l'acceptor, unint-se als subsetis positius de l'intermedi glicosil-enzim i donant diferent reaccions secundàries com són la polimerització del donador o l'elongació del producte, només en el cas que el donador presenti un grup glucosil en l'extrem no reductor. S'avalua un llibreria de xilogluco-oligosacàrids sintetitzada per l'equip del Dr. Driguez al CERMAV-CNRS com a donadors de la Ptt-XET16A. D'aquesta forma s'aprofundeix en el coneixement de l'activitat de les XTH, en el coneixement de la seva especificitat per substrat i es realitza un mapeig del centre actiu, obtenint la contribució dels diferents subsetis de la Ptt-XET16A en l'estabilització de l'estat de transició de la reacció de transglicosidació catalitzada per l'enzim estudiat. Finalment, s'ha dissenyat un substrat bifluorogènic derivat del tetradecasacàrid emprat com a substrat estàndard en el present treball, per mesurar les activitats hidrolasa i transglicosilasa de les XETs mitjançant fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). El substrat bifluorogènic ha estat obtingut i caracteritzat, tanmateix, no s'ha pogut demostrar si aquest substrat és adequat per mesurar les activitats hidrolasa i transglicosilasa de les XETs ja que les propietats fluorescents del marcador s'han perdut en el procés de síntesis del substrat. / El presente trabajo de investigación se enmarca en un proyecto Europeo llamado E.D.E.N. (Enzyme Discovery in hybrid aspen for fibre ENgineering, QLK5-CT-2001-00443), el objetivo del cual es la identificación de nuevos enzimas vegetales para entender con mayor profundidad los procesos de formación y modificación de las fibras vegetales para abordar en el futuro la mejora de los parámetros de calidad de estas fibras, mediante la generación de líneas transgénicas de plantas. En el presente proyecto se pretende profundizar en el conocimiento de las xiloglucano endotransglicosilasas (XET), enzimas claves en la construcción y modificación controlada de la red de xiloglucano-celulosa, estudiando su mecanismo de acción y su especificidad por sustrato. En este trabajo se estudia una XET de Populus tremula x tremuloides, concretamente la XET16A (Ptt-XET16A). Se diseña y se valida un nuevo ensayo enzimático mediante electroforesis capilar (HPCE), que permite el estudio cinético de las XET, utilizando oligosacáridos de xiloglucano de bajo peso molecular y de estructura conocida como sustratos. Estos sustratos han estado sintetizados en el presente trabajo y también por el equipo del Dr. Driguez en el CERMAV-CNRS. Se determina que el máximo de actividad de la Ptt-XET16A se da entre pH 5 y 5.5 y entre 30 y 40 ºC. Se demuestra que este enzima actúa mediante un mecanismo cinético bi-bi ping-pong, en el que el aceptor actúa como inhibidor competitivo del dador uniéndose al enzima libre y en el que, dependiendo del dador utilizado , éste también puede actuar como inhibidor competitivo del aceptor uniéndose en los subsitios positivos del intermedio glicosilo-enzima y dando diferentes reacciones secundarias como son la polimerización del dador o la elongación del producto, solamente si el dador presenta un grupo glucosilo en el extremo no reductor. Se evalúa una librería de xilogluco-oligosacáridos sintetizada por el equipo del Dr. Driguez en el CERMAV-CNRS como dadores de la Ptt-XET16A. De esta forma se profundiza en el conocimiento de la actividad de las XTHs, en el conocimiento de su especificidad por sustrato y se realiza un mapeo del centro activo del enzima, obteniéndose la contribución de los diferentes subsitios de la Ptt-XET16A en la estabilización del estado de transición de la reacción de transglicosidación catalizada por el enzima estudiado. Finalmente, se ha diseñado un sustrato bifuorogénico derivado del tetradecasacárido utilizado como sustrato estándar en el presente trabajo para medir las actividades hidrolasa y transglicosilasa de las XETs mediante fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). El sustrato biofluorogénico ha sido obtenido y caracterizado, sin embargo no se ha podido demostrar si este sustrato es adecuado para medir las actividades hidrolasa y transglicosilasas de las XETs, ya que las propiedades fluorescentes del marcador se han perdido durante la síntesis del sustrato. / The present work is part of an European project named E.D.E.N. (Enzyme Discovery in hybrid aspen for fibre ENgineering, QLK5-CT-2001-00443). The general objective of the project is to identify novel plant enzymes for deeper understanding of the process of fiber formation and modification for future improvement of the quality parameters of wood fibers. The present project pretends to increase the knowledge about xyloglucan endotransglycosylases (XET), which are thought to be key enzymes in the construction and controlled modification of the xyloglucan¬cellulose network. It is pretended to study the mechanism of action and the substrate specificity of a XET from Populus tremula x tremuloides, concretely XET16A (Ptt-XET16A). A new enzymatic assay based on capillary electrophoresis is designed and validated. This assay allows the kinetic study of XETs using as substrates, low molecular mass xyloglucan oligosaccharides with defined structures. These substrates have been synthesized in the present work and also in collaboration with Dr. Driguez team from CERMAV-CNRS. It is concluded that the maximum of activity of Ptt-XET16A is between pH 5 and 5.5 and 30 and 40 ºC. It is demonstrated that Ptt-XET16A follows a bi-bi ping-pong kinetic mechanism, in which the acceptor acts as competitive inhibitor of the donor binding to the free enzyme and depending on the donor used, this one can act also as competitive inhibitor of the acceptor binding to the acceptor subsites of the glycosyl-enzyme intermediate giving rise to side reaction such as donor polymerization and product elongation only in case that the donor shows a glucosyl residue in the non reducing end. A library of xylogluco-oligosaccharides, synthesized in CERMAV-CNRS by Dr. Driguez team, is evaluated as Ptt-XET16A donors. With this studies we are able to deeper understand the activity of XETs, their substrate specificity and a subsite maping of the binding cleft is done, obtaining the contribution of different subsites of Ptt-XET16A to the stabilization of the transition state of the transglycosylation reaction catalyzed by the studied enzyme. Finally, a bifluorogenic substrate derived from the tetradecasacharide used as standard substrate in this project has been designed to measure hydrolase and transferase activities of XET enzymes by fluorescense resonance energy transfer (FRET). The bifluorogenic substrate was obtained, however, it could not be demonstrated if it is an adequate substrate to measure hydrolase and transferase activities because the fluorescent properties of the label were lost during substrate synthesis.

Polyketide products are useful compounds to research and industry but can be difficult to access due to their richness in stereogenic centers. Type I polyketide synthases offer unique engineering opportunities to access natural stereocontrol and resultant complex compounds. The development of a controlled in vitro platform based around type I polyketide synthases is described. It has been used to produce a small library of polyketide fragments on an unprecedented and synthetically-relevant scale and explore polyketide synthase enzymology. / text