O carcinoma espinocelular (CEC) de cabeça e pescoço é uma neoplasia maligna que implica em baixas taxas de sobrevida e prognóstico desfavorável. A perda de adesão do epitélio e a migração celular são processos biológicos envolvidos na carcinogênese. O objetivo desse estudo foi descrever o padrão de expressão da molécula cinase de adesão focal (FAK) e suas formas fosforiladas, FAK-Tyr576 e FAK-Tyr925, em amostras de CEC no centro do tumor (CT) e zona de invasão (ZI) e no tecido epitelial não neoplásico adjacente a estes tumores (EA). De acordo com a graduação histopatológica, 48,1% do total das amostras de CEC são de grau moderado. Segundo o sistema pTNM, 62,9% eram T1 e T2, 64,8% não apresentaram metástase regional e não houve metástase à distância. O tempo máximo de acompanhamento foi de 5,9 anos e obteve-se a proservação final de 46 dos 54 pacientes, onde foi observado que 58,1% apresentaram boa evolução e 41,9% exibiram evolução ruim. A média em anos para que os pacientes obtivessem o status de evolução ruim foi de 5,01. Quanto ao estadiamento clínico, houve maior imunomarcação no estádio IVa quando comparado ao estádio II no EA da FAK Tyr-576 e ocorreu maior expressão no estádio IVb quando comparado ao estádio I no CT da FAK Tyr-576. Os pacientes que apresentaram evolução ruim após o período máximo de acompanhamento tiveram alta expressão no EA e na ZI da FAK Tyr-576 e no CT da FAK Tyr-925. Na ZI, o aumento de expressão da FAK está associado ao aumento da expressão da FAK Tyr-576. À medida que há aumento da expressão no EA há aumento da expressão na ZI na FAK Tyr-576. E quando há aumento da expressão no EA há aumento da marcação na ZI na FAK Tyr-925. Apesar do papel de todas as FAKs fosforiladas não estar claro, mas sabendo-se que são essas FAKs que estão ativas no câncer, a partir dos dados do presente trabalho pode-se sugerir que a avaliação da marcação FAK Tyr -576 no EA, no CT e na ZI venha a fazer parte da rotina no diagnóstico histopatológico e das margens da peça operatória, como norteadores da conduta terapêutica e do protocolo de acompanhamento. / Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the head and neck is a malignant neoplasm that implies low rates of survival and poor prognosis. The loss of adhesion and cell migration are biological processes involved in carcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to describe the pattern of expression of focal adhesion kinase molecule (FAK) and its phosphorylated forms, FAK-Tyr576, FAK-Tyr925, in SCC samples in the center of the tumor (CT) and invasion zone (ZI) and non-neoplastic epithelial tissue adjacent to these tumors (EA). According to histopathological grading, 48,1% of SCC samples are moderate. According to the system pTNM, 62,9% were T1 and T2, 64.8%, had no regional metastasis and no distant metastasis. The maximum time of follow up was 5,9 years and was obtained as the final proservation 46 of 54 patients, where it was observed that 58,1% of patients had good prognosis and 41,9% of patients had poor prognosis. The average years for patients to obtain the poor prognosis of status was 5.01. As for clinical staging, there was greater immunostaining in the stadium IVa compared to stage II in EA Tyr-576. And FAK expression was higher in stage IVb when compared to CT in stage I of FAK Tyr-576. Patients with poor prognosis after the maximum follow-up period had high expression in EA and ZI of FAK Tyr-576 and CT of FAK Tyr-925. In ZI, increased expression of FAK is associated with increased FAK Tyr-576 expression. As there is increased expression in EA's increased expression in ZI in FAK Tyr-576. And when there is increased expression in EA's increased marking the ZI in FAK Tyr-925. Despite the role of all phosphorylated FAKs not clear, but given that these are FAKs that are active in cancer, from the present data it can be suggested that the evaluation of expression of FAK Tyr 576 in EA, CT and ZI will be part of the routine histopathological diagnosis and surgical specimen margins, as guiding the therapeutic management and monitoring protocol.

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Les travaux présentés dans ce mémoire se situent dans le cadre général de la recherche de nouveaux médicaments par le biais de techniques informatiques. La première partie de ce document est centrée autour du développement de la plateforme logicielle VSM-G (Virtual Screening Manager for Grids). Le but poursuivi par ce projet est de fournir un outil convivial et simple d'utilisation afin de conduire des études de criblage virtuel à haut-débit. Le coeur de VSM-G repose sur une stratégie multi-étapes de filtres successifs permettant le traitement efficace de chimiothèques de grande taille. Deux filtres ont été utilisés pour ce travail et implémentés dans VSM-G : un programme innovant d'estimation rapide de complémentarité géométrique entre molécules-candidates et site actif (SHEF) précéde un algorithme de docking flexible plus conventionnel (GOLD). Les avantages de cette méthodologie, associée à la prise en charge de multiples conformations de la cible étudiée (le récepteur nucléaire LXRβ), sont présentés tout d'abord par une étude de preuve de concept, puis à travers une campagne de criblage virtuel à grande échelle. L'autre partie de ces travaux, exclusivement applicative, concerne l'étude du domaine FAT de la kinase d'adhérence focale FAK. FAK est une cible d'intérêt pharmaceutique particulièrement intéressante, car clairement impliquée dans divers processus de développement cancéreux. Le but de cette étude est double : il s'agit tout d'abord de mieux comprendre le mode de fonctionnement du domaine FAT de FAK à travers une étude biophysique pour en évaluer la flexibilité ; et ensuite concevoir in silico des petites molécules peptidomimétiques permettant de moduler son activité, ce qui pourrait limiter une progression tumorale.

La presente tesis doctoral presenta varios resultados fundamentales para la ampliación del conocimiento actual de procesos importantes en la generación de los circuitos neuronales, como son la migración y la ramificación de células neurales. En primer lugar, se ha determinado la expresión de la semaforina transmembranal 4F en cerebro de ratón en desarrollo y adulto. Así, se ha visto que se expresa en diversas áreas del cerebro, y se ha encontrado expresión de esta proteína en precursores neuronales y en neuronas maduras, principalmente en dendritas, y en células del linaje oligodendroglial. Para profundizar más en este aspecto se llevaron a cabo varios marcajes dobles de Sema4F con proteínas marcadoras de oligodendrocitos, observándose marca en el nervio óptico y otras regiones cerebrales, incluídas la materia blanca y vías de migración de oligodendrocitos. La localización de esta semaforina en el nervio óptico a edades embrionarias y su expresión en células precursoras de oligodendrocitos (OPCs), comprobada in vitro, nos llevó a sugerir que Sema4F funciona controlando la migración de OPCs. Una serie de experimentos con explantes de nervio óptico tratados con medio control o medio condicionado 4F nos permitió determinar que Sema4F actúa inhibiendo la migración de OPCs, sin afectar a su proliferación. Además, Sema4F induce la diferenciación de OPCs a oligodendrocitos maduros. Todos estos datos sugieren un posible papel de Sema4F en procesos de remielinización. Los efectos negativos de Sema4F sobre la migración de OPCs deben cursar con cambios en el citoesqueleto celular. La kinasa de adhesión focal (FAK) es un importante mediador de señales extracelulares (como factores tróficos, interacción de integrinas con proteínas de matriz extracelular, etc…) y el interior de las células. Actúa sobre el citoesqueleto de actina y de tubulina, influyendo en la generación de filopodios, lamelipodios y fibras de estrés. Tiene un papel crucial en migración, de modo que dedicimos estudiar si Sema4F ejerce sus efectos en OPCs a través FAK. Hemos visto que Sema4F es capaz de inducir la fosforilación en varios residuos tirosina de FAK en pocos minutos, y que ambas proteínas por separado ejercen efectos opuestos en la migración de oligodendrocitos. La vía de señalización de 4F, de la que se desconoce incluso el receptor, podría cursar mediante la modulación del estado de activación de FAK, aunque faltan experimentos definitivos. FAK presenta varias isoformas específicas del sistema nervioso central, originadas mediante procesos de splicing alternativo. En la presente tesis hemos determinado con gran especificidad la forma mayoritaria expresada en varias áreas cerebrales y en el desarrollo embrionario o el adulto, tanto en neuronas como en células de la glía. FAK responde a neurotrofinas y participa en procesos de ramificación neuronal, si bien su efecto final es controvertido. Otra proteína que responde a neurotrofinas, y actúa promoviendo la ramificación axonal, es la kinasa dependiente de cdc-42 activada 1 (Ack1). En esta tesis hemos determinado que ambas proteínas interaccionan en cerebro específicamente, de manera independiente de la isoforma de FAK presente. Mediante el uso de inhibidores hemos visto que la activación de FAK es necesaria para la fosforilación de Ack1 y viceversa. FAK es la responsable de la atracción ejercida por netrina-1, y hemos determinado que la ausencia de Ack1 elimina el efecto de esta molécula de señalización. Con técnicas de Espetrometría de Masas hemos identificado algunos posibles interactores de ambas proteínas. Además, hemos observado cambios en el estado de fosforilación de varios residuos de FAK y Ack1 en función del estado de desarrollo (ratones P5 Vs. Adultos) y del estado general de activación del cerebro (ratones inyectados con la droga epileptogénica PTZ Vs. Control). / This thesis presents several results related to important processes regarding neural circuit formation, i.e. migration and ramification of Central Nervous System (CNS) cells. First, we have determined the expression of transmembrane semaphorin 4F (Sema4F) in developing and adult mice brain. Expression of this protein is high in neuronal and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), and in different areas including optic nerve (ON) and different migratory pathways. In vitro experiments confirmed Sema4F expression in OPCs. We investigated the role of this protein in functions important for OPC physiology, and found that Sema4F inhibits OPC migration from ON explants and induces their differentiation into mature progenitors. Negative effects of Sema4F in migration must involve cytoskeleton changes. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is an important integrator of different extracellular signals and modulates cytoskeleton dynamics to control generation of lamellipodia, fillopodia and stress fibers. In the present project we found that Sema4F is able to phosphorylate FAK, and that FAK enhances OPC migration. The exact implications of Sema4F-FAK relationship remain to be elucidated. FAK exists in different spliced isoforms, expressed preferentially in brain. In this project, we characterised the exact isoform expressed in different areas of the brain and by different cell types. Finally, FAK response to neurotrophins is well characterised. FAK also participates in ramification processes, with controversial final effects in neurons. Ack1 is a crucial transducer of neurotrophin-induced ramification. In this thesis we show that both proteins interact specifically in neurons. We have also found that the activation of FAK is necessary for Ack1 phosphorylation upon stimulation, and viceversa. FAK mediates netrin-1 attraction, and here we have determined that knocking-down Ack1 avoids netrin-1 effects in hippocampal explants. By Mass Spectrometry (MS) techniques, we have observed changes in the phosphorylation state of both proteins depending on the developmental stage of the brain (P5 mice) or its activation state (epileptic mice).

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80–85% of all lung cancers and is associated with significant mortality. As epidermal-growth-factor receptor (EGFR) is over-expressed in 80-90% of NSCLC, its inhibition via EGFR-Tyrosine Kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) is a main therapeutic strategy. However, patients with mutations in KRAS are resistant to EGFR-TKIs. A study in mutant KRAS-driven lung cancer in transgenic mice showed that tumor growth was dependent on the activity of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Therefore, we hypothesized that KRAS-mutant NSCLC will be sensitive to FAK-TKIs and, given known FAK-EGFR cross-talk, FAK inhibition will sensitize KRAS-mutant NSCLC to EGFR-TKIs. We performed cell viability assays of WT versus mutant KRAS NSCLC cell lines following treatment with FAK-TKI alone or in combination with a clinically relevant EGFR-TKI. We found that KRAS-mutant cells were more sensitive to FAK-TKI than KRAS-WT NSCLC. In addition, we found that the combination treatment including FAK and EGFR TKIs resulted in reduced tumor cell viability as compared to treatment with either drug alone. This enhanced anti-tumor response could be due to FAK-TKI’s ability to down-regulate EGFR downstream targets. Our preliminary data suggests that in KRAS-mutant cells the drug combination appears to more effectively inhibit Akt activity than single drug treatment alone. This suggests an enhanced ability to impair cell survival following treatment with the drug combination. We also found that treatment with FAK TKI in KRAS mutant NSCLC cells resulted in increased activation of EGFR which was due in part to modulation of EGFR recycling and production of endogenous EGFR ligands. Thus, the combination of FAK- and EGFR-TKIs may be more effective in KRAS mutant NSCLC as treatment with EGFR-TKI overcomes the unexpected ‘side effect’ of treatment with FAK-TKI, namely activation of the EGFR pathway by this drug. The findings of our study are novel and have uncovered previously unrecognized outcomes of FAK inhibition on EGFR activity. Moreover, our data support the notion that the combination of FAK- and EGFR-TKIs could be an effective treatment for KRAS mutant NSCLC patients.

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Το γλοιοβλάστωμα αποτελεί έναν από τους πιο θανατηφόρους τύπους καρκίνου για τον άνθρωπο δεδομένου ότι ο μέσος όρος επιβίωσης είναι 12-15 μήνες. Η συμβατική θεραπεία με τα κλασσικά χημειοθεραπευτικά σχήματα δεν έχει αποδώσει ιδιαιτέρως θετικά αποτελέσματα. Η εξέλιξη της μοριακής βιολογίας έχει «ρίξει φως» στην διερεύνηση και κατανόηση αρκετών μηχανισμών της κυτταρικής λειτουργίας που αφορούν τη μετανάστευση, τον πολλαπλασιασμό και την απόπτωση των κυττάρων. Στο γλοιοβλάστωμα έχει παρατηρηθεί αυξημένη δραστηριότητα πολλών υποδοχέων αυξητικών παραγόντων στην επιφάνεια των κυττάρων όπως ο EGFR, ο PDGFR και ο VEGFR. Ταυτόχρονα, υπάρχουν και άλλα μόρια επιφανείας με ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον όπως οι ιντεγκρίνες λόγω της ιδιότητας τους να καθορίζουν τη μετανάστευση. Στη νέα εποχή των αναστολέων κινάσης τυροσίνης οι οποίοι δρουν έναντι των υποδοχέων των αυξητικών παραγόντων και θεωρούνται πολλά υποσχόμενα μικρά μόρια, πρέπει να διερευνηθεί αν μπορούν να έχουν θέση στην αντιμετώπιση του γλοιοβλαστώματος. Αρχικά έγινε εκτίμηση της επίδρασης των αναστολέων sunitinib και lapatinib ξεχωριστά αλλά και σε συνδυασμό, στο πολλαπλασιασμό και στο κυτταρικό θάνατο των κυττάρων γλοιβλαστώματος U87 και M059K σε συγκεντρώσεις 0,01, 0,1, 1 και 10μΜ. Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκε η μέθοδος του 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 διμεθυλθειαζόλο βρωμιδίου και το ολοκληρωμένο σύστημα ανίχνευσης αννεξίνης V/προπιδίου (annexin V/propidium iodide), αντίστοιχα. Για τη διαδικασία της μετανάστευσης εφαρμόστηκε η μέθοδος μελέτης του χημειοτακτισμού. Η έκφραση μεταλλοπρωτεϊνασών MM-2 και MMP-9 εκτιμήθηκε με τη μέθοδο του ζυμογραφήματος. Περαιτέρω έγινε διερεύνηση της πιθανής εμπλοκής των φαρμάκων στο σχηματισμό συμπλόκων EGFR-υπομονάδα β1 ιντεγκρινών, PDGFR- υπομονάδα β3 ιντεγκρινών και VEGFR- υπομονάδα β3 ιντεγκρινών. Η μελέτη της δημιουργίας των συμπλόκων των β υπομονάδων των ιντεγκρινών με τους υποδοχείς αυξητικών παραγόντων έγινε χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο της ανοσοκατακρήμνισης και της ανάλυσης κατά Western. Τα αποτελέσματα επαληθεύτηκαν και με τη μέθοδο του ανοσοφθορισμού. Με την ίδια μέθοδο μελετήθηκε και η επίδραση των φαρμάκων στη φωσφορυλιωμένη μορφή της FAK. Τα πειραματικά δεδομένα έδειξαν ότι και οι δύο αναστολείς sunitinib και lapatinib, μείωσαν τον πολλαπλασιασμό με δοσοεξαρτώμενο τρόπο 48 ώρες μετά την προσθήκη τους στα κύτταρα είτε μεμονωμένα είτε σε συνδυασμό. Τα αποτελέσματα της αναστολής του πολλαπλασιασμού συμβάδιζαν με τα αποτελέσματα της απόπτωσης όπου το ποσοστό των αποπτωτικών κυττάρων αυξήθηκε. Περαιτέρω η μετανάστευση των κυττάρων εμφανίστηκε μειωμένη μετά την προσθήκη των φαρμάκων είτε μεμονωμένα είτε σε συνδυασμό. Η έκφραση των μεταλλοπρωτεϊνασών MMP-2 και MMP-9 δεν επηρεάστηκε στα κύτταρα U87 μετά την προσθήκη και των 2 φαρμάκων. Αντίθετα, στα κύτταρα M059K το sunitinib αλλά και ο συνδυασμός του με το lapatinib ελαττώσαν την έκφραση των MMPs 48 ώρες μετά τη προσθήκη τους στο θρεπτικό μέσο. Στη συνέχεια βρέθηκε ότι το lapatinib μπορεί να αναστείλει την δημιουργία συμπλόκου του EGFR με την υπομονάδα β1 των ιντεγκρινών, έως και 30 λεπτά μετά την προσθήκη του φαρμάκου στα κύτταρα. Αντίστοιχα το sunitinib μπορεί να αναστέλλει το σχηματισμό συμπλόκου της υπομονάδας β3 των ιντεγκρινών με τον VEGFR εντός δύο ωρών από την προσθήκη των φαρμάκων, χωρίς επίδραση όμως στον σχηματισμό των συμπλόκων PDGFR – υπομονάδα β3 ιντεγκρίνης. Αυτά τα αποτελέσματα επιβεβαιώθηκαν και με την χρήση ανοσοφθορισμού. Συνοψίζοντας, οι δύο αναστολείς κινάσης τυροσίνης, sunitinib και lapatinib κατάφεραν να επιδείξουν αξιόλογα αποτελέσματα στις παραμέτρους του πολλαπλασιασμού και της μετανάστευσης των κυττάρων γλοιοβλαστώματος. Τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας είναι πρωτοποριακά διότι, αναφορικά με την μετανάστευση στο γλοίωμα, αυτή φαίνεται να αναστέλλεται αποτελεσματικότερα με τον συνδυασμό των δύο φαρμάκων πιθανά μέσω του μηχανισμού διαταραχής της δημιουργίας του συμπλόκου ιντεγκρίνης- υποδοχέας αυξητικού παράγοντα. / Glioblastoma is considered to be one of the most fatal among the malignancies in human with median survival between 12-15 months. The conventional chemotherapy cannot change the fate of these patients. Recent advances in molecular biology have shed light in the various mechanisms recruited by malignant cells in order to proliferate, metastasize and escape apoptosis. Studies in glioblastoma have already shown up-regulation in the function of tyrosine kinase receptors such as EGFR, PDGFR and VEGFR. Besides this, in the more recent years, research supports the significant role of integrins in the migration process of glioblastoma cells. In the new era of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), where their main mechanism of action is by blocking various growth factor receptors, it has to be determined a possible contribution in the fight against glioblastoma. Initially, it was estimated a possible effect of sunitinib and lapatinib applied either alone or in combination, on U87 and M059K glioma cells’ proliferation and apoptosis using doses of 0,01 μM, 0,1 μM, 1μM and 10 μM. The proliferation was estimated using the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 dimethyltetrazolium bromide assay and apoptosis using annexin V/propidium iodide detection assay. Migration assay was performed using Boyden chamber assay. The release of MMP-2 and MMP-9 into the culture medium of U87 and M059K cells was measured by zymography. Furthermore, a possible implication of the tested agents in the formation of EGFR-integrin β1 complex, VEGFR-integrin β3 and PDGFR-integrin β3 complexes formation was studied. Immunoprecipitation and western blot analysis were used for studying the complex formation of EGFR, PDGFR and VEGFR with integrins. Validation of the results was made using immunofluorescence assay. Also, similar experiments were performed for the effect of sunitinib and lapatinib in FAK phosphorylation. The results showed that both tested agents decreased cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner 48 h after their application in both cell lines either alone or in combination. The results in cell proliferation were in line with the increase in apoptotic cells after their treatment with the tested agents. Furthermore, the ability of U87 and M059K cells to migrate was inhibited either by each agent alone or in combination. Both agents did not affect MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels in U87 cells, however, MMPs levels were decreased in M059K cells, 48h after their treatment with sunitinib either alone or in combination with lapatinib. Additionally, a time course study for the effect of lapatinib on EGFR-integrin β1 complex revealed an inhibition in complex formation up to 30 min after agent application. Likewise, sunitinib inhibited complex formation of VEGFR-integrin β3 complex within 2h after its application without affecting PDGFR-integrin β3 complex. The previously-described interruption of complexes formation was confirmed with an immunofluorescence assay. Summarizing the results, sunitinib and lapatinib exerted significant effects on glioblastoma cell proliferation, apoptosis and migration. The preliminary results of the current study are the first to support the implication of a dual anti-EGFR/HER-2 agent, lapatinib and a multi-targeted agent, sunitinib in glioma cells migration, through a mechanism implying interruption of growth factor receptor - integrin complexes formation.