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Master of Science / Department of Biology / Keith B. Gido / Nonnative species represent a major threat to the continued persistence of native fishes globally, especially in the Colorado River Basin of western North America, where there are now more nonnative than native fishes. In the upper Gila River, a tributary of the Colorado, numerous nonnative fishes have established populations, and predation by these nonnatives has been linked to extirpation of native fishes under low-flow conditions at some locations. Historically, the upper Gila lacked a top piscivore, and it is unclear what mechanisms have allowed the establishment of nonnative piscivores and resultant extension in food chain length. To investigate the phenomenon of increased food chain length through nonnative introductions we explored the influence of autochthonous energy availability on nonnative predator abundance, food chain length, and abundance of other trophic levels. Predictions were that increased basal energy availability would lead to increased nonnative predator abundance and thus increased food chain length, based upon predictions from food web theory. Annual production and biomass of four trophic levels measured across six longitudinally-positioned sites were calculated between June 2008 and June 2009 to test these predictions. In addition, energy demand of trophic levels relative to energy supply was compared across sites using a quantitative food web approach, to evaluate energy limitation across trophic levels. Primary production was found to vary considerably across the upper Gila (1,677-16,276 kcal m-2 yr-1), but production and biomass of other trophic levels was not related to this gradient as predicted. In addition, food chain length demonstrated a marginally-significant negative relationship with primary production (R[superscript]2=0.42, d.f.=5, p=0.16), which was in contrast with predicted responses. These results suggest that energy availability does not appear to be a limiting factor to the production or biomass of consumers. The influence of other mechanisms on food chain length in the upper Gila River, in particular disturbance frequency and intensity, deserve further investigation.

Small-scale fisheries employ many millions of people around the world, and are particularly important in developing countries, where the dependency on marine resources is high and livelihood diversification options are scarce. In many areas of the world however, small-scale fisheries are at risk which threatens the food security and wellbeing of coastal people. Small-scale fisheries management has in many cases been insufficient and new comprehensive approaches are recommended to achieve social-ecological sustainability in the long-term. The aim of this thesis is to analyze empirically how social-ecological elements of seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries in the Western Indian Ocean region can be addressed for a transformation from the current mostly degraded state to more sustainable social-ecological systems and secure future livelihoods. The main method used was semi-structured interviews with local fishers. The main findings show the crucial contributions seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries make to food security and income generation and highlight the need to acknowledge the social-ecological importance of seagrasses in the seascape (Paper I). A discrepancy between low societal gains of the fishing of sea urchin predator fish species and their crucial importance in the food web (in controlling sea urchin populations and the associated grazing pressure on seagrasses) was identified (Paper II). These results suggest catch-and-release practice of sea urchin predator fish species, which could contribute to more balanced predator – sea urchin – seagrass food webs in the long run. The use of illegal dragnets was identified as a major threat to local seagrass meadows (Paper IV). Institutional elements influencing the use of such destructive dragnet were identified to be normative, cultural-cognitive and economic, which constitutes an institutional misfit to the current emphasis on regulative elements in a hierarchical manner (Paper III). Concerning future co-management initiatives, gear restrictions and education were the favoured management measures among all fishers (Paper IV). A majority of fishers were willing to participate in monitoring and controls, and most fishers thought they themselves and their communities would benefit most from seagrass-specific management. These findings highlight the need for actions on multiple scales, being the local-, management-, policy- and governance levels. The suggested actions include: education and exchange of ecological and scientific knowledge, gear management including the cessation of dragnet fishing, strengthening of local institutions, an active participation of fishers in enforcement of existing rules and regulations and an introduction of adequate alternative livelihood options. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

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Mounting evidence suggests that large carnivores regulate the abundance and diversity of species at multiple trophic levels through cascading top-down effects. The fear large carnivores inspire in their prey may be a critical component of these top-down effects, buffering lower trophic levels from overconsumption by suppressing large herbivore and mesopredator foraging. However, the evidence that the fear of large carnivores cascades through food webs has been repeatedly challenged because it remains experimentally untested. My collaborators and I exploited a natural experiment – the presence or absence of mesopredator raccoons (Procyon lotor) on islands in the Gulf Islands of British Columbia, Canada – to examine the breadth of mesopredator impacts in a system from which all native large carnivores have been extirpated. By comparing prey abundance on islands with and without raccoons, we found significant negative effects of raccoon presence on terrestrial (songbirds and corvids), intertidal (crabs and fish) and shallow subtidal (red rock crabs Cancer productus) prey, demonstrating that, in the absence of native large carnivores, mesopredator impacts on islands can extend across ecosystem boundaries to affect both terrestrial and marine communities. To test whether fear of large carnivores can mitigate these community-level impacts of mesopredators, we experimentally manipulated fear in free-living raccoon populations using month-long playbacks of large carnivore vocalizations and monitored the effects on raccoon behaviour and the intertidal community. Fear of large carnivores reduced raccoon foraging to the benefit of the raccoon’s prey, which in turn affected a competitor and prey of the raccoon’s prey. By experimentally restoring the fear of large carnivores in our study system, we succeeded in reversing the impacts of raccoons, reinforcing the need to protect large carnivores given the conservation benefits the fear of them provides. Our experimental work demonstrated that fine-scale behavioural changes in prey in response to predation risk can have community-level effects relevant to biodiversity conservation. However, experimentally testing animal responses to predators and other sources of risk in free-living wildlife presents considerable logistical challenges. To address these challenges, my collaborators and I developed an Automated Behavioural Response system, which integrates playback experiments into camera trap studies, allowing researchers to collect experimental data from wildlife populations without requiring the presence of an observer. Here I describe tests of this system in Uganda, Canada and the USA, and discuss novel research opportunities in ecology and conservation biology made available by this new technology. / Graduate

Les Broméliacées sont une vaste famille de plantes à fleurs néotropicales dont certaines ont la capacité de retenir de l’eau et des détritus grâce à l’agencement de leurs feuilles qui forment un phytotelme (du grec phyto : plante et telma : mare). Elles fournissent ainsi un habitat pour de nombreux organismes aquatiques, depuis les micro-organismes jusqu’aux vertébrés. Dans cet écosystème aquatique, les détritus collectés sont le plus souvent de la litière qui constitue la base du réseau trophique dont dépend la Broméliacée pour l’acquisition des nutriments. Ces phytotelmes forment des microcosmes aquatiques naturels très nombreux et distribués dans des environnements très divers, allant du sous-bois de la forêt tropicale à des sites très exposés comme les inselbergs. De plus, certaines espèces entretiennent des relations mutualistes très poussées avec des invertébrés terrestres tels que les fourmis, alors que d’autres, qui ont évolué dans des environnements très pauvres en nutriments, ont eu recours à l’insectivorie. Si les communautés d’invertébrés de ces phytotelmes ont fait l’objet de nombreux projets de recherche en écologie, nos connaissances sur la structure des communautés de micro-organismes sont très parcellaires, et les facteurs de contrôle qui façonnent ces communautés sont le plus souvent déduits d’études réalisées dans d’autres écosystèmes aquatiques. L’objectif général de ce travail de thèse a été d’analyser l’influence de facteurs environnementaux et biologiques sur la structure et la diversité des communautés microbiennes aquatiques des phytotelmes des Broméliacées localisées dans des environnements contrastés de Guyane française. Nous avons examiné les communautés aquatiques de 8 espèces de Broméliacées à réservoirs situées sur deux sites en Guyane française, en considérant différentes variables abiotiques et biotiques, tels que les traits végétatifs des plantes, la taille de l’habitat, les groupes fonctionnels d’invertébrés, l’association mutualiste avec des fourmis, etc. Les résultats obtenus mettent en lumière l’ubiquité de différents groupes de microorganismes (virus, bactéries, champignons, algues eucaryotes et cyanobactéries, protozoaires et micro-métazoaires) dans cet écosystème et l’importance fonctionnelle d’organismes autotrophes dans ce réseau trophique considéré jusque-là comme exclusivement détritique. Ces plantes procurent ainsi une grande variété d’environnements aquatiques, depuis des écosystèmes exclusivement hétérotrophes (e.g. Guzmania lingulata) jusqu’à des écosystèmes ayant un fonctionnement autotrophe dominant, en particulier chez les plantes les plus exposées (e.g.Catopsis berteroniana). La structure du réseau trophique microbien des Broméliacées dépend en grande partie (1) de la structure de l’habitat, c’est-à-dire des traits végétatifs des plantes tels que la taille de celles-ci et le nombre de réservoirs, et (2) des conditions environnementales dans lesquelles sont situées les plantes, à savoir l’exposition à la lumière et l’approvisionnement en ressources détritiques. Pour la Broméliacée de jardins de fourmis Aechmea mertensii, l’identité de la fourmi associée conditionne la structure de l’habitat et la localisation de la plante, ce qui influence indirectement la structure du réseau trophique microbien. Les invertébrés aquatiques sont impliqués dans le contrôle des communautés microbiennes de par leur filtration sur les micro-organismes. L’analyse des patterns de distribution suggère toutefois que leurs activités d’excrétion, de fragmentation des détritus et de recyclage de la matière organique ont un effet positif sur le réseau microbien. Les communautés bactériennes de la Broméliacée insectivore Catopsis berteroniana, sont principalement modulées par le nombre de carcasses de fourmis, qui constituent l’essentiel des proies de cette plante. (...) / Bromeliads are a large family of neotropical flowering plants. The leaves of many bromeliads are tightly interlocking, forming wells that collect water and organic detritus. These phytotelmata (plant-held water) provide habitat for numerous aquatic organisms ranging from microorganisms to vertebrates. In this aquatic ecosystem, detritus (usually leaf litter) form the basis of a food web upon which depends the nutrition of the bromeliad. In tropical forests, these phytotelmata form abundant natural aquatic microcosms, distributed in a large range of tropical environments, from understory to overstory. In addition, some species of tank-bromeliads share mutualistic relationships with terrestrial invertebrates such as ants, while others have evolved in nutrient-poor environments and have become insectivorous. Although numerous ecological studies have dealt with invertebrates communities, analyses of the structure of microbial communities in tank-bromeliads remain very scarce and factors that shape these communities derived mostly from studies of others aquatic ecosystems. Here, we analyzed the impact of environmental and biological factors on the structure and the diversity of aquatic microbial communities in tank-bromeliads located in contrasted environments in French Guiana. We examined aquatic communities inhabiting tanks of 8 bromeliad species located in two sites of French Guiana, and analyzed the impact of different abiotic and biotic variables, such as vegetative traits of plants, habitat size, functional feeding groups of invertebrates, mutualistic association with ants, etc. Our results highlight the ubiquity of microbial groups (virus, bacteria, fungi, eukaryotic algae and cyanobacteria, protozoans and micrometazoans) in this ecosystem and the significance of autotrophic organisms in this detritus-based system. These plants provide a wide variety of aquatic environments ; from strict heterotrophic systems (e.g. Guzmania lingulata) to mixed systems in which the autotrophic compartment sometimes dominates (e.g. Catopsis berteroniana). The structure of the microbial food web in tank-bromeliad largely depends on (1) the habitat structure (i.e. the vegetative traits of the plants such as plant height and the number of wells), and (2) the environmental conditions of the plants (i.e. light exposure and input of detrital organic matter). For the ant-garden bromeliad Aechmea mertensii, we found that the identity of the associated ant affects both habitat structure and plant location, which in turn influence the structure of the microbial food web. Through their filtration, aquatic invertebrates are involved in the control of microbial communities. However, the analysis of the distribution patterns suggests that their activities of excretion, detrital processing and nutrient cycling positively affect the microbial food web. In the insectivorous tank-bromeliad Catopsis berteroniana, bacterial communities were mostly driven by the number of dead ants, which represent the main trapped preys in this plant. This work highlights the huge diversity of aquatic ecosystems that are created by bromeliads, and their significance for the maintenance of taxonomic and functional diversity of microorganisms in tropical forests.