When we compare the grammatical structure of texts in French and Swedish, we notice important differences. The aim of this essay is to make a contrastive analysis on a French economic text which we have translated into Swedish. We focus on what types of French constituents we can find that correspond to Swedish subordinate clauses of different types. We are also interested in examining the French subordinate clauses to see how they have been translated into Swedish.

The overall aim of the present study is to investigate how teachers deal with linguistic and cultural otherness in the French foreign language classroom at upper secondary school level in Sweden. The foreign language classroom is seen as a cultural meeting place where images of otherness are natural elements. In this respect, otherness should be regarded as one cultural aspect among others implying human as well as language phenomena. Analyzing the way in which the teachers in the study mediate this otherness to their students is expected to contribute to the pedagogical debate on intercultural understanding in language teaching and learning.   The study is based on empirical data consisting of video recorded observations in three different classrooms. One class (class A) is treated as primary data where two activities are especially focused, namely working with texts and working with grammar. The verbal interaction from these activities has been transcribed and analyzed qualitatively. The first step of analysis concerns the learning aims which are transmitted to the students in the teacher’s introduction to the two activities. The second step deals with the teacher’s procedures to involve the students in the construction of knowledge which focuses on linguistic and cultural otherness. Finally, a comparative perspective is adopted. On the one hand, the two different activities are compared with each other, while on the other hand, the findings from class A are compared with class B and C. From a dialogical point of view, the way in which the classroom setting and the teachers’ acting can favour intercultural understanding is discussed. The results of the analyses highlight the fact that teachers seem to pay more attention to linguistic otherness than to cultural otherness. Furthermore, the study shows that the foreign language classroom has a dialogical potential when it comes to human relations and discourse. More attention could be paid to these aspects of teaching in order to pave the way for better intercultural understanding. The teachers in the present study seem to favour dialogical relationships in the classroom and neglect discursive issues in the situation. Our conclusion is that the way in which teachers deal with otherness is tradition-bound. Texts, for instance, even those with an obvious intercultural content, are treated as pre-texts for studying linguistic phenomena. Cultural phenomena, when dealt with, are limited to a product paradigm and are transmitted without reflection and with no apparent awareness of any intercultural understanding.

Ce mémoire traite des méthodologies générales et systématisées de la didactique des langues étrangères développées à différentes périodes, ainsi que des méthodes d’enseignement (techniques, outils, matériels, exercices, activités et tâches etc.) et des théories autour de celles-ci. En utilisant une enquête, remplie par des professeurs travaillant dans certaines écoles suédoises, cette étude lie les méthodologies, les méthodes d’enseignement et les théories avec les pratiques de classe. L’étude montre quelles méthodes d’enseignement sont utilisées et la fréquence de leur utilisation, ainsi que les liens avec les méthodologies. Elle montre aussi que l’enseignement des professeurs de l’étude est principalement représentatif d’une seule méthodologie (la méthodologie cognitiviste – l’approche communicative). / This dissertation discusses the general and systemized methods of foreign language didactics that have been developed at different periods. The dissertation also looks at teaching methods (strategies, tools, materials, exercises, activities, assignments, etc.) and the theory behind these. For the purpose of this study, teachers at a number of schools in Sweden completed a questionnaire about methodology, teaching strategies, and theory in relation to classroom practice. The study demonstrates the teaching methods that are used and the frequency of their use, as well as the way in which they relate to methodology. The study also shows that most teachers who completed the questionnaire principally employ one methodology: the cognitive methodology – the communicative approach.

It is known to most of us that in order to succeed with a translation you need good language skills, both in the source language and in the target language. But in the work of translating a text in a specific field, the translator also needs certain knowledge of that specific domain. In this essay, I analyze to what extent one needs that knowledge, and to what extent dictionaries, secondary literature and research on the Internet can help during the translation process.   The main subject for this essay is however an analysis of the translation of astrological terms, taken from a French book on medical astrology from which I have translated three whole chapters. The target language is Swedish. These two languages have separate origins, and therefore the terminologies could differ a lot. But, since the subject – astrology – comes from Ancient Greece and doesn’t depend on neither the French nor the Swedish culture, it is more likely that the astrological technolect looks partly the same in both languages: the terminology should presumably have been borrowed from the language of the ancient Greeks.   The seven translation strategies suggested by Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet in Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais, written in the 1950’s, helped me analyze the translation. With their method, I could for example see if the translation was mostly literal or oblique, and what kind of strategy is preferable in the translation of technolects.

I det ryska litterära språket under upplysningstiden blandades kyrkslaviska och ryska, samtidigt som det bland annat influerades av franskan. En av denna tids mest välkända ryska dramaturger var Denis Ivanovič Fonvizin, men trots hans utmärkelse har det endast forskats sparsamt om honom och hans verk.  Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka förekomsten av franska och kyrkslaviska element i Fonvizins två pjäser Brigadir och Nedorosl’ med upplysningstiden i Ryssland som bakgrund. Avsikten är således dels att ta reda på hur språkbruket såg ut, dels att utröna om språkliga skillnader mellan Brigadir och Nedorosl’ kan kopplas samman med förändringar i det ryska samhället under upplysningstiden. En närstudie av de två pjäserna har genomförts. Analysen av bruket av franska visar att användningen har koncentrerats till ett fåtal rollfigurers tal i både Brigadir och Nedorosl’. I Brigadir förekommer franska i repliker till samtliga av pjäsens övriga rollfigurer, medan bruket i Nedorosl’ främst sker mellan några få aktörer. I Brigadir består bruket av franska av rena franska ord eller russifierad franska, medan det Nedorosl’ endast sker genom gallicismer. Analysen av användningen av kyrkslaviska visar att den är tydligast och mest frekvent hos en rollfigur i respektive pjäs. I Brigadir påträffas vissa kyrkslaviska former av ord som inte existerar i Nedorosl’; där finns i stället fler substantiv som härstammar från kyrkslaviskan. / Русский литературный язык эпохи Просвещения отличался лексическим разнообразием: он представлял собой причудливое смешение просторечия и церковнославянизмов, находясь при этом под сильным влиянием французского. Одним из самых известных российских драматургов той эпохи был Денис Иванович Фонвизин. Несмотря на широкую известность, его жизнь и его труды остаются малоисследованными.  Цель этой работы – изучить проявление французского и церковнославянского языка в пьесах «Бригадир» и «Недоросль» на фоне эпохи Просвещения в Россиийской Империи. Таким образом цель работы двойная. Я намерена в частности изучить как были примены французский и церковнославянский языки, и в частности расследовать если лингвистические различия между двумя пьесами могут быть связаны с изменениями в российском обществе в эпоху Просвещения.  Анализ использования французского языка показывает, что употребление было сосредоточено в речи несколько действующих лиц и в «Бригадире», и в «Недоросле». Герои пьесы «Бригадир» обращаются по-французски ко всем другим персонажам пьесы, но в «Недоросле» по-французски говорят лишь немногие. В «Бригадире» использование французского языка состоит из чисто французких слов или их обрусевших вариантов, в то время как в «Недоросле» используются только галлицизмы. Анализ употребления церковнославянского языка показывает, что использование проявляется наиболее ярко и часто в речи только одного из героев в каждой из пьес. В «Бригадире» есть некоторые церковнославянские формы слов, не встречающиеся в пьесе «Недоросль». В последней, однако, намного больше существительных, происходящих от церковнославянского языка.

<p>The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account.</p><p>The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa.</p><p>The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.</p>

<p>Inferno constitutes a turning point in Strindberg's literary production in that scriptural quotations appear more frequently and a new style emerges. This thesis presents the characteristics of the scriptural quotations appearing in Inferno (1897) and Jacob Wrestles (a fragment following Légendes, written in French and in Swedish in 1898). Comparative, discourse, textual and intertextual approaches are used to define the place and role of scriptural quotations in this literary corpus.</p><p>From a historical point of view, both novels are part of the religious history of late 19th century France, where religion played a more important role than during the scientific, rationalist era characterizing the preceding decades. Strindberg adopts a new style corresponding to the spirit of his time. The art of "quoting the Bible at random" is a rhapsodic style, which appears mainly in Strindberg’s correspondence, in his Occult Diary (writings contemporary with Inferno) and in the work of some French 19th century writers. This style originates, above all, in the occult tradition, but it is also a means of imitating the Bible and identifying with a prophetic figure.</p><p>The research discussed in this dissertation has made it possible to determine, for the first time, what Bible translations are used in the two novels by Strindberg (translations by Ostervald and Martin / Roques). Five different types of rewritings of quotations were found: omissions, cutting of verses, substitutions, typographical changes and inversions. These variations were aimed at harmonising the Biblical text and the Strindbergian text, while removing contextual and theological elements that bothered the writer. The discourse analysis has concentrated on the quotations viewed as reported speech, distinguishing different ways of introducing Biblical verses in the novel. It was found that the narrator's subjectivity is present in the comments leading up to the quotations. The polyphonic character of some quotations has stressed the importance of identification play between the narrator and certain quotations characters such as Christ, Job and the psalmist.</p><p>The intertextual analysis has revealed a large number of similarities in the scriptural quotations in the literary production of Strindberg, Swedenborg and French 19th century literature. It is shown that Inferno contains various quotations that appear in Occult Diary and in other writers’ works, such as those of Swedenborg, Péladan, Zola, Huysmans and Chateaubriand. Jacob Wrestles, on the other hand, does not include as many intertextual elements but instead reassembles many scriptural quotations that were underlined in the Bible translation used for this novel: La Sainte Bible, Ostervald's translation from 1890, which can be found in Blå Tornet (The Strindberg Museum in Stockholm). Strindberg is consequently recycling Biblical material when he writes Inferno, while resorting to the French Bible of Ostervald from 1890 to write Jacob Wrestles.</p><p>The quotations strewn in Inferno constitute a crescendo and reveal the narrator’s unsuccessful attempt at conversion, at the same time forming the structure of a complaint psalm in which the narrator cries out his suffering and awaits liberation. In the French text of Jacob Wrestles, the writer offers a package of scriptural quotations in order to identify the narrator as "a religious man", imploring God's mercy like Moses and Job. In the Swedish text of Jacob Wrestles, a new perspective is introduced as a result of the change in language, the change from Old to New Testament, the new spiritual disposition of the narrator and the sudden intrusion of the writer in the narrator’s space. The role of scriptural quotations in the entire fragment of Jacob Wrestles is a true linguistic, thematic and theological revolution, which accounts for the narrator's extraordinary religious evolution. The misery of the narrator in Inferno allows a ray of Christian hope, which will persist in Strindbergs’s literary production post-Inferno.</p>

<p>This study addresses the French morphological construction [VN/A/Adv/P]_N/A. The main objectives are to posit a single rule for its formation and to question the implications of the agent polysemy. The theoretical framework is lexeme-based morphology, which adheres to weak lexicalism.</p><p>The first part of our analysis is qualitative and concerns the availability aspect of productivity. The method is introspective. The internal semantic patterns of the French construction are examined. Our results give evidence for the claim that a single morphological construction rule, [VN/A/Adv/P]_N/A, is responsible for the cases where the first constituent is a verb stem, and the second constituent may correspond to an internal argument, an external argument or a semantic adjunct. All cases manifest the same patterns, which are related to the denotative meanings included in the agent polysemy: Agent, Instrument, Locative, Action, Result and Cause. Our contrastive analysis shows that the same patterns are found in the four Swedish agentive formations, [N/A/Adv/PV-are]_N, [N/A/Adv/PV]_N, [N/A/Adv/PV-a]_N and [VN]_N, which correspond to the French [VN/A/Adv/P]_N/A construction and which also contain a verbal constituent and its internal or external argument, or an adjunct.</p><p>The second part of our analysis is quantitative and concerns the profitability aspect of productivity. The method is inductive. The aim is to explore the polysemy of agent and its assumed hierarchical structure, in synchrony and diachrony. Four French agentive formations, [VN/A/Adv/P]_N/A compounds and V-<i>ant</i>, V-<i>eur</i> and V-<i>oir</i>(<i>e</i>) derivations, are included in order to examine semantic competition and blocking effects. Our results give evidence for the existence of an agent polysemy but deny that it has a hierarchical structure valid for every agentive formation. The meanings in the agent polysemy are more or less profitable according to formation type: blocking effects could explain this behaviour.</p>

Inferno constitutes a turning point in Strindberg's literary production in that scriptural quotations appear more frequently and a new style emerges. This thesis presents the characteristics of the scriptural quotations appearing in Inferno (1897) and Jacob Wrestles (a fragment following Légendes, written in French and in Swedish in 1898). Comparative, discourse, textual and intertextual approaches are used to define the place and role of scriptural quotations in this literary corpus. From a historical point of view, both novels are part of the religious history of late 19th century France, where religion played a more important role than during the scientific, rationalist era characterizing the preceding decades. Strindberg adopts a new style corresponding to the spirit of his time. The art of "quoting the Bible at random" is a rhapsodic style, which appears mainly in Strindberg’s correspondence, in his Occult Diary (writings contemporary with Inferno) and in the work of some French 19th century writers. This style originates, above all, in the occult tradition, but it is also a means of imitating the Bible and identifying with a prophetic figure. The research discussed in this dissertation has made it possible to determine, for the first time, what Bible translations are used in the two novels by Strindberg (translations by Ostervald and Martin / Roques). Five different types of rewritings of quotations were found: omissions, cutting of verses, substitutions, typographical changes and inversions. These variations were aimed at harmonising the Biblical text and the Strindbergian text, while removing contextual and theological elements that bothered the writer. The discourse analysis has concentrated on the quotations viewed as reported speech, distinguishing different ways of introducing Biblical verses in the novel. It was found that the narrator's subjectivity is present in the comments leading up to the quotations. The polyphonic character of some quotations has stressed the importance of identification play between the narrator and certain quotations characters such as Christ, Job and the psalmist. The intertextual analysis has revealed a large number of similarities in the scriptural quotations in the literary production of Strindberg, Swedenborg and French 19th century literature. It is shown that Inferno contains various quotations that appear in Occult Diary and in other writers’ works, such as those of Swedenborg, Péladan, Zola, Huysmans and Chateaubriand. Jacob Wrestles, on the other hand, does not include as many intertextual elements but instead reassembles many scriptural quotations that were underlined in the Bible translation used for this novel: La Sainte Bible, Ostervald's translation from 1890, which can be found in Blå Tornet (The Strindberg Museum in Stockholm). Strindberg is consequently recycling Biblical material when he writes Inferno, while resorting to the French Bible of Ostervald from 1890 to write Jacob Wrestles. The quotations strewn in Inferno constitute a crescendo and reveal the narrator’s unsuccessful attempt at conversion, at the same time forming the structure of a complaint psalm in which the narrator cries out his suffering and awaits liberation. In the French text of Jacob Wrestles, the writer offers a package of scriptural quotations in order to identify the narrator as "a religious man", imploring God's mercy like Moses and Job. In the Swedish text of Jacob Wrestles, a new perspective is introduced as a result of the change in language, the change from Old to New Testament, the new spiritual disposition of the narrator and the sudden intrusion of the writer in the narrator’s space. The role of scriptural quotations in the entire fragment of Jacob Wrestles is a true linguistic, thematic and theological revolution, which accounts for the narrator's extraordinary religious evolution. The misery of the narrator in Inferno allows a ray of Christian hope, which will persist in Strindbergs’s literary production post-Inferno.

The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account. The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa. The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.