Criminal custody as an ultima ratio instrument This thesis deals with a criminal custody which is considered as the most serious instrument within criminal procedural security measures which should be used by law enforcement authorities only in the most extreme cases when all of the legal conditions are strictly fulfilled. One of the purposes of this thesis is to explicate, through personal freedom and presumption of innocence both guaranteed by the Czech Constitution and both significantly affected by custody, the importance of using this instrument only in situations without any other solution when is impossible to reach the purpose of criminal proceedings by using some of the more lenient measures, it means to use the custody just as an ultima ratio instrument. A crucial part of this thesis pays attention to the individual legal conditions of current effective legislation that should ensure observance of this principle also in practice. In the mentioned part the procedure of the authorities deciding on custody is analysed in detail that authorities firstly must resolve the question if the prosecution of a specific person is justified and if a certain specific degree of suspicion is achieved proving that this one perpetrated an offence. After that is necessary to investigate the existence of...

Constitutional limits of personal freedom Abstract The Master's thesis deals with the extensive theme of restriction or deprivation of the personal freedom. The aim of this thesis is not to analyse the reasons for deprivation of personal freedom in detail, but to look at personal freedom as a whole. In the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (the Charter), personal freedom is the highest-ranked right to be most often interfered with by the state. Any restriction of personal freedom must meet a number of conditions resulting from legislation, international treaties and the supreme courts' decisions. The main goal of this thesis is to evaluate the frequency and intensity of the deprivation of personal freedom in the Czech Republic. In this thesis I pose the question whether all these limits of permissible deprivation of personal freedom are respected in practice or not. In this thesis I do not deal with the term of imprisonment but I focus on the reasons of deprivation of personal freedom expressly enumerated in the Charter. The first chapter deals with a brief definition of the concept of personal freedom, its incorporation in our legal order and its implementation in international treaties. In the following section, I present the conditions of permissible deprivation of personal freedom resulting...

[pt] A dissertação aborda o pensamento de Michel Foucault a partir do anti-humanismo que caracteriza a sua crítica. Por um lado importa pensar o conceito de história e presente que recusa – metodológica e ontologicamente – o homem. É através de um questionamento histórico que Foucault mostra que o homem – o problema maior da filosofia de cunho antropológico – é o efeito de um determinado estado de pensamento. Nós vamos contrapor nesse sentido, o conceito antropológico humanista de história ao conceito antiantropológico anti-humanista de história defendido por Foucault, o qual é capaz de subverter o discurso filosófico moderno. Por outro lado, sabe-se que as pesquisas de Foucault pretendiam ter efeitos de liberdade. Entretanto ele não propõe nada que se assemelhe a um projeto de sociedade necessário ao exercício pleno da liberdade, tal como fizeram alguns filósofos que presumem a existência de uma natureza humana, a qual seria preciso realizar quando da superação das contingências históricas. Nesse viés nos interessa pensar também uma noção anti-humanista de liberdade que fica implícita na crítica histórico-filosófica de Foucault. / [en] The dissertation is about Michel Foucault’s thought based on the anti-humanism that characterizes his criticism. On one hand, it is important to consider the concepts of history and present that refuse methodologically and ontologically man. Foucault shows, through history inquiry, that man the major problem related to anthropological philosophy is the historical effect of a given state of thought, and not the cause of thought. We will oppose, in this way, the anthropological humanistic concept of history to the anti-anthropological anti-humanistic defended by Foucault, which is able to subvert the modern philosophical discourse. On the other hand, we know that the research done by Foucault claimed to have an effect on freedom. However, he does not propose anything like a project of society necessary for the full exercise of freedom, like some philosophers who assume the existence of a human nature, which would take place when overcoming the historical contingencies. With respect to this aspect, it is important to consider an anti-humanist notion of freedom that is implicit in the historical and philosophical criticism of Foucault.

Longtemps ignoré, le principe de concentration a reçu ses lettres de noblesse des mains du juge, dans le retentissant arrêt « Cesareo » du 7 juillet 2006. Une décennie plus tard, il est consacré par le pouvoir réglementaire et devient la clé de voûte du procès civil. Les exigences de réunion de la matière litigieuse encadrent désormais la liberté procédurale des parties dans la détermination de l’objet du litige. Principe directeur ou simple norme oublieuse des garanties du droit au procès équitable, la concentration inspire autant l’engouement que la défiance. Une étude apaisée de la relation entre le principe de concentration et le procès civil nécessite de redécouvrir ce principe. Ses origines et l’étendue de son champ d’application n’ont, à ce jour, jamais été étudiées. La dissimulation de la concentration derrière l’autorité de la chose jugée voile nombre de ses aspects. Identifier l’autonomie de la norme de concentration et sa valeur principielle est le but de la première partie de l’étude. Faire valoir sa légitimité par la mise en exergue de ses utilités est le dessein de la seconde partie. S’il est tentant de réduire le principe de concentration à la seule célérité des procédures, ses utilités sont en réalité bien plus riches. Une fois resitué parmi les autres principes du procès civil, il apparaît comme un modèle d’équilibre aux confins de l’efficience et de l’équité. Finalement, la compréhension de la relation entre le principe de concentration et le procès civil supposait de mettre en lumière l’existence et l’essence d’un principe directeur « émergent » dans un système normatif en quête de repères. / The longtime ignored principle of concentration had its important status restored by the judge in the resounding Cesareo case on the 7th of July 2006. A decade later, this principle is enshrined by the regulatory power as the back bone of the civil action. The procedural freedom of the parties in determining the object of litigation is henceforth conditioned by the clustering subject-matter in dispute. As a guideline or a simple rule defying the due process rights, the concentration principal raises the interest as much as the diffidence.The mediating analysis of the relationship between the civil trial and the principle of concentration implies revisiting the later. The sources and the extension of the scope have not yet been studied, as the principle was commonly dealt with in the res judicata perspective, thus concealing its ontological aspects. It was therefore essential, in the first part of the analysis, to identify it as an autonomous norm, as well as to determine the value as a principle. In the second part, its legitimacy was revealed by underlining the manifold usefulness of the principal that can no longer be reduced to a mere expediting proceedings tool. Among the principles of the civil process, the concentration is an equilibrium model between efficiency and equity. Understanding the relationship between the concentration principle and the civil trial ultimately revealed the existence and the essence of a guiding principle that “emerges” in a normative system in search of reference points.

The American movie industry did not have to develop into the Hollywood dream factory. There were educative, religious, explicitly political, and other non-commercial alternative arrangements to America’s film industry. These alternatives, along with principles such as film free speech and movie propaganda, had to be cast aside by the emerging moguls of Hollywood. Conflicts with the vanquished liquor industries, moral and economic regulatory concerns, Republican Party politics, and the resurgent Klan all shaped the classic Hollywood system from 1906 to 1927, a 20-year period in which the American film industry depoliticized the Hollywood movie screen, shedding its democratic and propagandistic definitions for the politics of publicity and entertainment as a service to Americans. Developments in this infant industry also shaped the broader trajectory of American consumer capitalism toward big producer control and the self-regulation of the industry’s social effects.

The aim of the study is to investigate the presentation of Christianity in relation to the other world religions in curricula and teaching materials from 1969 and 2011, as well as to investigate what influenced the development of these from previous researches. From a comparative method and self-formulated analytical categories, the results have been analyzed. As far as the curricula are concerned, it emerged that Christianity has had and still have a special position towards other world religions. As far as the teaching materials are concerned, a clear difference emerged as to which perspective it is based on. In the teaching material from year 1969, the non-Christian religions are highlighted as something strange and odd at the same time as in the teaching medium from 2011 they are highlighted neutral. Christianity is still a starting point in both curricula and teaching materials. The reason why curricula and teaching materials look like they do can, according to the study, be a result of the increased migration in the country but also a result of the religious freedom law. The school faces a dilemma where the school on the one hand will be based on Christian traditions and on the other hand be factual and impartial. The question we ask after our analysis is what really is the most important - to ensure the best of the country and the cultural heritage or to take into consideration the different cultural heritage of the students. Conclusions from our study are that other religions have gained more space in today's curriculum and teaching materials than before. It is also more neutrally formulated, however, it is a long way to go to a non-confessional education in religious knowledge. We stand with one foot in tradition and one foot in the renewal and are about to take a step over to the last one.

Nesta pesquisa, busca-se analisar alguns aspectos da vinculação entre dois momentos da obra de Jean-Paul Sartre a partir da relação entre ontologia e história. O primeiro momento, marcado pela ontologia fenomenológica de O ser e o nada, apresentaria estruturas caracterizadas por uma a-historicidade; o segundo momento, marcado principalmente pela aproximação do marxismo e um grande peso dado à história, encontra-se principalmente em Questão de método e Crítica da razão dialética. Ao contrário das interpretações que afirmam a incompatibilidade entre esses dois momentos da obra de Sartre, mostra-se ao longo do texto que as estruturas da ontologia fenomenológica, se não apresentam uma formulação sobre a história, são uma abertura para ela, pois descrevem um processo de totalização de si do sujeito que o lança em uma totalização de totalizações a qual, por sua vez, é o próprio processo histórico. / This research aims to analyze some aspects of the link between two moments of Jean-Paul Sartre\'s philosophy regarding the relation between ontology and history. The first moment, marked by the phenomenological ontology of Being and Nothingness, would present structures characterized by a-historicity; the second moment, marked by an approach of Marxism and by a great weight being ascribed to history, is found mainly in Question of method and in Critique of dialectical reason. Contrary to the interpretations that sustain the existence of an incompatibility between these two moments of Sartre\'s thought, this work argues that the structures of phenomenological ontology, if they do not present a formulation about history, they nonetheless hold an opening towards it, since they describe a process through which the subject carries out a totalization of herself that throws her into a totalization of totalizations which, in turn, is the historical process itself.

O presente trabalho encontra evidências do papel das principais variáveis macroeconômicas e da liberdade sobre a felicidade dos indivíduos. Usando micro-dados de surveys de bem-estar subjetivo para mais de cem mil pessoas de 74 países, estimamos um modelo de Probit Ordenado. Baseados numa especificação microeconométrica de bem-estar padrão na literatura, controlando por efeitos regionais, tempo e características individuais, o PIB per capita apresenta efeitos positivos e decrescentes sobre o bem-estar reportado, sendo que ganhos de bem-estar proveniente do crescimento econômico parece desaparecer com o tempo, sugerindo uma forte adaptação das pessoas. Os custos das recessões parecem ser maiores do que a simples queda do PIB e o aumento do desemprego. Estimamos que um aumento na taxa de desemprego traz custos psíquicos equivalentes a US$450 para o cidadão médio. Estas evidências estabelecem a noção de que o desemprego tem efeitos negativos sobre o bem-estar mesmo daqueles que continuam empregados. Para os que realmente perdem o emprego, o custo das recessões é de cerca de US$11.400. A inflação parece ter um custo de US$88, na média, o que resulta numa taxa marginal de substituição entre desemprego e inflação de 5, corroborando a existência de uma Função de Bem-Estar Social. Além disso, os custos da inflação recaem especialmente sobre os pobres, culminando em US$364 para os indivíduos do decil de renda mais baixo, sugerindo a natureza regressiva do imposto inflacionário. Encontramos evidências também de que as pessoas parecem derivar utilidade das condições e processos que levam aos resultados econômicos, além da utilidade derivada propriamente dos resultados. Chamamos este tipo de utilidade de utilidade processual. As pessoas preferem viver em ambientes políticos e econômicos mais livres, onde elas tenham mais possibilidades de escolha. A principal consequência teórica deste tipo de evidência é que o fato das pessoas se importarem com processos de escolha viola o axioma fundamental da monotonicidade, de forma que a avaliação do comportamento individual a partir de uma perspectiva tradicional levaria necessariamente a uma representação inconsistente das preferências. A utilidade processual é incompatível com a teoria da utilidade esperada. / This dissertation brings evidence on the role of the main macroeconomic variables and freedom on individual happiness. Using microdata from subjective wellbeing surveys from 74 countries, we estimate an Ordered Probit Model. Based on a standard microeconometric specification, we show that macroeconomics influences wellbeing directly. Even after controlling for time, individual characteristics and regional effects, per capita GDP has positive and diminishing effects on reported wellbeing. Most of this effect vanishes with time, suggesting a strong presence of human adaptation. The costs of recessions are found to be larger than what would be predicted by standard economic theory. We estimate that a rise on the unemployment rate brings psychic losses over and beyond the fall on GDP. They are equivalent to US$450 for the average citizen and US$11,400 to the people who lose their jobs. The cost of inflation, on average is US$88, which results on a marginal substitution rate between unemployment and inflation of around 5. That corroborates the existence of a Social Welfare Fuction. Moreover, we find that the costs of inflation fall specially on the poor, culminating on US$364 for the individuals belonging to the lowest income decile, suggesting a regressive nature of the inflation tax. We also find evidence that people derive utility from the conditions and processes that lead to economic outcomes, beyond the utility derived directly from these outcomes. This kind of utility is called procedural utility. People prefer to live in freer political and economic environments, where they have more possibilities to choose from. The main theoretical consequence of this kind of evidence is that the fact that people care about processes violates the fundamental axiom of monotonicity, which leads the evaluation of individual behavior of standard economic theory necessarily to an inconsistent representation of preferences. Procedural utility is not compatible with the expected utility theory.

Ao afirmar que a sua filosofia vê na duração o próprio tecido de que a realidade é feita, no último capítulo de A evolução criadora, Bergson explicita o seu projeto de construção de uma nova metafísica. Sabemos que a originalidade de sua empreitada está fundamentalmente nessa exigência da apreensão do tempo, sua transitoriedade e fluidez, como aquilo de que a realidade é feita. Trata-se de declarar a realidade temporal como definição da própria existência do mundo e da experiência humana sem a duração, não se pode falar em causalidade efetiva ou livre escolha. Sendo assim, a exigência de uma metafísica da duração se colocaria de imediato em contraposição não a uma filosofia somente, mas à história da filosófica como um todo, cuja crítica é essencial para a construção e consolidação do pensamento bergsoniano. Contudo, pensamos que, na tradição filosófica, destaca-se um autor com quem Bergson dialogou intensamente, declaradamente ou não, e que pouco esteve presente nos trabalhos dos estudiosos do seu pensamento: Espinosa. Pretendemos reconstituir esse diálogo a partir de um campo de comunicação que possibilite revelar seus pontos de entrecruzamento, confrontação e encontro. Talvez assim, o desencontro maior - entre uma filosofia da duração e, outra, da eternidade- mostre-se, ao fim e ao cabo, apenas aparente. / By stating that his philosophy \"sees in duration the own tissue that reality is made\" in the last chapter of Creative Evolution, Bergson explains his project to build a new metaphysics. We know that the originality of his work is based in this exigency of the sense time, its transience and fluidity, as that from which reality is made. It is time to declare the temporal reality as definition of the own existence of the world and human experience without the duration one can not speak in effective causality or free choice. Thus, the requirement of a metaphysics of duration is put immediately in opposition not only to one philosophy, but the history of philosophy as a whole, whose criticism is essential to building and consolidating of the Bergson\'s thought. However, we believe that, in the philosophical tradition, there is an author with whom Bergson spoke intensely, openly or not, and that little was present in the work of scholars of his thought: Espinosa. We intend to reconstruct this dialogue from a communication space that allows to reveal their points of intersection, confrontation and meeting. Perhaps then the biggest mismatch - between a philosophy of duration, and another, of eternity-shows, after all, only apparent.

O presente trabalho tem por objeto de estudo os usos do conceito de eleuthería na República de Platão. Tem-se por ponto de partida uma gama de conceitos relativos à noção de liberdade na antiguidade, propondo-se a analisar o diálogo segundo duas concepções antagônicas de eleuthería. A primeira delas é a mais comum na abordagem dos diálogos platônicos, trata-se da ideia de fazer o que se quer e esse sentido é encontrado, sobretudo, no exame da forma de governo democrática e do homem que corresponde a esse regime político. Para uma compreensão adequada desse sentido, propõe-se que se entenda o que está em jogo quando se tece uma crítica ao regime democrático. Esse sentido é tido como essencialmente negativo, pois traz consequências indesejáveis dentro do contexto em que é apresentado. Supõe-se que haja um outro sentido de eleuthería presente no diálogo, o qual não é tratado sistematicamente e que é apenas sugerido nas entrelinhas da mais bela cidade, a kallípolis. Diante da necessidade de mostrar que esse sentido pode integrar a economia da obra, parte-se de indícios textuais nos quais a liberdade não está associada à forma de governo democrática para mostrar que a caracterização de uma liberdade positiva parece ser possível. Esse sentido positivo estaria associado a um certo ideal de excelência. Por fim, sugere-se que de acordo com esse sentido positivo a expressão fazer o que se quer possa ser interpretada de uma forma completamente diversa da encontrada no contexto democrático. / The present work has as object of study the uses of the concept of eleuthería in Plato\'s Republic. As starting point we have a wide range of concepts related to the notion of freedom in antiquity, it is proposed the analysis of the dialogue according to two antagonical concepts of eleuthería. The first is the most common in Plato\'s dialogues, it is the idea of \"to do whatever one wants\" and this meaning is found, above all, when examining the democratic government and the corresponding man to this political regime. For an adequate comprehension of this meaning, it is proposed the understanding of what is at stake when a critique of the democratic regime is made. This meaning is held essentially as negative because it brings undesirable consequences in the context in which it is presented. It is supposed that there is other meaning of eleuthería present in the dialogue which is not sistematically addressed and is only suggested between the lines of the most beautiful city, the kallípolis. Facing the necessity of showing that this meaning can integrate the economy of the work, starting from textual indications in which freedom is not associated to the democratic way of government to show that the characterization of a positive freedom seems possible. This positive meaning could be associated to a certain ideal of excellency. In the end it is suggested that, according to this meaning the expression \"to do whatever one wants\" could be interpreted in a completely diverse way of the meaning found in the democratic context.