A combinação de célula eletroquímica (EC) com a entrada do equipamento de eletroforese capilar (CE), apesar de recente, tem permitido realizar determinação de ânions radicais; pré-concentração eletroquímica de metais pesados, seguida de redissolução, separação e detecção; bem como monitorar produtos carregados formados por oxidação eletrocatalítica de espécies neutras, como álcoois primários e glicerol. Empregando o sistema EC-CE-C4D desenvolvido pelo grupo, a determinação simultânea de cátions, ânions (no contra fluxo) e espécies neutras (detectadas após derivatização eletroquímica) foi demonstrada pela primeira vez, tendo o antisséptico bucal (Listerine® Tartar Control) como amostra real. Embora constante e reprodutível, a conversão dos álcoois primários nos respectivos carboxilatos apresentou rendimento relativamente baixo, ~16%, nas condições anteriormente adotadas, 1,6 V vs. Ag/AgClKCl 3M empregando eletrodo de platina em meio ácido (HNO3 5 mmol L-1 / HCl 1 mmol L-1). Dessa maneira, avaliou-se a oxidação de álcoois primários de cadeia normal (C2 − C5) sobre diferentes materiais de eletrodo (ouro e platina) em diferentes meios (ácido, neutro e alcalino). Os carboxilatos gerados foram monitorados injetando uma alíquota da amostra derivatizada no capilar (50 µm d.i., 45 cm de comprimento e 20 cm efetivo) aplicando 5 kPa durante 5 s, e durante as separações, 30 kV foi aplicado entre as extremidades do capilar preenchido com Tris 30 mmol L-1 / HCl 10 mmol L-1 usado como BGE. Os resultados obtidos com o sistema EC-CE-C4D apontaram maior conversão dos álcoois nos respectivos ácidos carboxílicos em meio ácido, tanto em ouro quanto em platina. Adicionalmente, em eletrodo de ouro a formação dos carboxilatos apresentou certa seletividade não observada sobre platina, favorecendo a conversão dos álcoois de cadeia menor. Noutra vertente, buscando atender as necessidades atuais por metodologias que possibilitem monitorar a eletrooxidação do glicerol em reatores eletroquímicos, desenvolveu-se um método que permitiu determinar simultaneamente o glicerol e alguns de seus possíveis produtos de oxidação neutros, como gliceraldeído e dihidroxiacetona, explorando a formação de complexo carregado com borato (presente no BGE composto por H3BO3 60 mmol L-1 / LiOH 30 mmol L-1), além dos produtos ionizáveis (ácidos carboxílicos) que são comumente analisados por CE. O equipamento de CE utilizado, munido de dois detectores C4D, também permitiu avaliar a interação de alguns ácidos carboxílicos com os modificadores de EOF, Polybrene® e CTAB, empregando MES 30 mmol L-1 / His 30 mmol L-1 como BGE. Seguindo a atual tendência à miniaturização de sistemas analíticos, avaliou-se a possibilidade de construir um sistema EC-CE-C4D miniaturizado. Para isso, um novo método para fabricação de microdispositivos em vidro, baseado em ablação a laser de CO2 assistida por parafina, como alternativa aos dispendiosos métodos de corrosão por via úmida foi desenvolvido. Os dispositivos obtidos por esse método apresentaram canais de perfil semicircular, e as dimensões puderam ser controladas variando a potência e/ou a velocidade de ablação do laser. Contudo, pelos desafios ainda encontrados para se construir um sistema EC-CE-C4D completo em substrato de vidro por ablação a laser de CO2, optou-se por iniciar a miniaturização do sistema EC-CE-C4D com um sistema híbrido em que se aproveita as características mais bem definidas e favoráveis dos tubos capilares de sílica fundida usados em CE convencional. Esse sistema permitiu a determinação quantitativa de metanol na presença de alta concentração de etanol, possibilitando, numa primeira aplicação, realizar o monitoramento da quantidade de metanol e etanol nas frações iniciais coletada durante o processo de destilação fracionada na produção de uísque de milho (moonshine) feito em laboratório. Visto a maior seletividade para conversão dos álcoois de cadeia menor obtidas em eletrodo de ouro e meio ácido, esse foi escolhido para a presente aplicação. As condições que apresentaram melhores resultados no sistema híbrido EC-CE-C4D abrangeram diluição de 100 vezes da amostra em HNO3 2 mmol L-1, eletrooxidação a 1,4 V vs. Ag durante 60 s, injeção eletrocinética no capilar mediante aplicação de 3 kV durante 4 s, e a separação dos carboxilatos realizada aplicando 3 kV entre as extremidades do capilar (50 µm d.i., 15 cm de comprimento com 12 cm efetivo), preenchido com CHES 10 mmol L-1 / NaOH 5 mmol L-1, usado como BGE. A análise das primeiras frações destiladas da \"labmade moonshine\" apresentou um aumento na concentração de etanol (variando de ~80 % a ~100 %) e simultâneo decréscimo da concentração de metanol (variando de 4 % a ~0,1 %). Em suma, avançou-se tanto no leque de aplicações da derivatização eletroquímica hifenizada com a eletroforese capilar como na miniaturização da instrumentação analítica para EC-CE-C4D, favorecendo a disseminação dessa poderosa combinação de três técnicas eletroquímicas. / The direct couple of electrochemical cell (EC) with the inlet of the capillary electrophoresis (CE) equipment, recently demonstrated, has allowed the determination of radical anions; to perform electrochemical preconcentration of traces of heavy metals, followed by stripping, injection, separation and detection; and the generation of charged species by electrochemical oxidation of neutral molecules, e.g. primary alcohols and glycerol. Employing the EC-CE-C4D system developed by our group, the simultaneous determination of cations, anions (in the counter EOF mode) and neutral species (after electrochemical derivatization) was demonstrated for the first time and a mouthwash (Listerine® Tartar Control) was used as a real sample. Although constant and reproducible, the conversion of primary alcohols into carboxylates had a low yield (~16%), under the adopted conditions, 1.6 V vs. Ag/AgClKCl 3M using platinum electrode in acid medium (5 mmol L-1 HNO3 / 1 mmol L-1 HCl). Thus, the yield of carboxylates was studied for the oxidation of alcohols (C2 − C5) on two electrode materials (gold and platinum) in different media (acid, neutral and alkaline). After the electrooxidation step an aliquot of the derivatized sample was automatically injected into the capillary (50 µm i.d., 45 cm in length and 20 cm up to detector) by applying 5 kPa during 5 s. The separation was carried out applying 30 kV between the capillary ends previously filled with 30 mmol L-1 Tris / 10 mmol L-1 HCl BGE. Cyclic voltammograms show higher current density for alcohols oxidation in alkaline medium than in acid one both on gold and platinum electrodes. On the other hand the yields of carboxylic acids were higher in acidic medium. Besides that, only on gold electrode some selectivity for the carboxylate formation was observed favoring the conversion of the short chain alcohols. In order to meet the current needs for methodologies that allow the monitoring of the electrooxidation of glycerol in electrochemical reactors, a method was also developed that allowed the determination of glycerol and some of its possible neutral oxidation products, such as glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone, by exploring the formation of borate complexes (provided in the BGE composed of 60 mmol L-1 H3BO3 / 30 mmol L-1 LiOH), together with ionizable ones like carboxylic acids. The employed CE equipment with two C4D detectors allowed the evaluation of the interaction between some carboxylic acids and the EOF modifiers, Polybrene® and CTAB, using 30 mmol L-1 MES / 30 mmol L-1 His as BGE. Aligned with a current trend of analytical instrumentation, the miniaturized EC-CE-C4D system was attempted. For that, a new method for manufacturing microdevices in glass, based on paraffin-assisted CO2 laser ablation, was developed as an alternative to costly wet-etching methods. The devices obtained by this method presented channels of semicircular profile and the dimensions could be controlled by varying the laser power and/or ablation velocity. Due to remaining challenges in the construction of a complete laser ablated EC-CE-C4D system on glass, a miniaturized system based on a hybrid approach is presented in the thesis, by taking advantage of the more defined and favorable characteristics of the well known fused silica capillary tubes used in CE. This system allowed the quantitative determination of methanol in the presence of high ethanol concentration by taking advantage of the higher yield of short-chain carboxylic acid formation on gold in acidic medium. The first application was the monitoring of the amount of methanol and ethanol in the initial fractions collected during the fractional distillation process in the production of corn whiskey (moonshine) made in the laboratory. The conditions that showed the best results with the hybrid EC-CE-C4D system included a 100-fold dilution of the sample in 2 mmol L-1 HNO3, electrooxidation at 1.4 V vs. Ag for 60 s, electrokinetic injection into the capillary by applying 3 kV for 4 s and separation of the carboxylates carried out under 3 kV between the ends of the capillary (50 µm i.d., 15 cm in length and 12 cm up to detector) previously filled with 10 mmol L-1 CHES / 5 mmol L-1 NaOH, used as BGE. Analysis of the first distilled fractions of labmade moonshine showed an increase in ethanol concentration (ranging from ~ 80% to ~ 100%) and a simultaneous decrease in methanol concentration (ranging from 4% to ~ 0.1%). In short, both the range of applications of electrochemical derivatization hyphenated with capillary electrophoresis as well the miniaturization of analytical instrumentation for EC-CE-C4D were improved, favoring the dissemination of this powerful combination of three electrochemical techniques.

Les aquaporines (AQPs) sont des petites protéines formant des canaux hydriques àtravers les membranes cellulaires. Les AQPs 0, 1, 2 ,4 ,5 ,6 et 8 assurent le transport sélectif de l’eautandis que les AQPs 3, 7, 9 et 10 permettent également le passage du glycérol. Nous avons étudié leurexpression dans l’épiderme, la couche supérieure de notre peau supposée imperméable. Dans lesmélanocytes, des cellules dendritiques responsables de la pigmentation, seule l’AQP1 est exprimée.Nous avons montré que les kératinocytes, les cellules majoritaires de l’épiderme, expriment enprolifération les AQPs 3 et 10, alors que les kératinocytes différenciés expriment les AQPs 3 et 9. Lalocalisation de l'AQP3 a été précédemment rapportée à la membrane plasmique des kératinocytes, de lacouche basales à la couche épineuse. Nous avons localisé l'AQP9 dans les kératinocytes différenciés dela couche granuleuse au contenu riche en glycérol et réduit en eau. De fait nous pensons que l'AQP9 ysert de transporteur de glycérol. Enfin contrairement à d'autres auteurs, nous n’avons pu mettre enévidence de lien entre prolifération tumorale et expression des aquaporines. / Aquaporins (AQPS) are a family of small proteins forming water channels across cell membranes.AQPs 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 8 are strictly water channel whereas AQPs 3, 7, 9 and 10 allow transport ofwater and glycerol. We have studied their expression in the epidermis, the outer-most water-impermeablelayer of the skin. In melanocytes, dendritic cells responsible for pigmentation, only AQP1 is expressed, invitro and ex vivo. We have shown that keratinocytes, principal cells of the epidermis, express AQPs 3 and10 in proliferation, whereas differentiated keratinocytes express AQPs 3 and 9. The localisation of AQP3to plasma membrane of keratinocytes was previously reported from the basal layer to the spinous layer ofthe skin. We localised AQP9 in the fully differentiated keratinocytes of the granular layer, where there is ahigh glycerol and low water content. So we think that AQP9 likely functions as a glycerol transporter.Unlike other authors, we were unable to identify a link between tumorous proliferation and the expressionof aquaporins.

Ce travail est consacré à la modélisation, simulation et optimisation des réacteurs catalytiques gaz/solide à lit fixe multitubulaire pour la production de l'acroléine à partir du propylène ou du glycérol. La première partie du travail traite de l'oxydation catalytique du propylène en acroléine. Différents modèles cinétiques et du réacteur ont été développés. Les paramètres inconnus mis en jeu sont identifiés à partir des mesures expérimentales. Un ensemble de variables opératoires qui maximisent les rendements des produits clés ont ensuite été déterminés en utilisant le modèle validé. La seconde partie du travail concerne la production d'acroléine à partir du glycérol. Elle comprend une étape de déshydratation du glycérol et une étape de régénération du catalyseur. Un modèle hétérogène bidimensionnel a été développé. Pour la régénération du catalyseur, un modèle cinétique qui permet d'identifier la concentration et les compositions initiales du coke et de prédire le processus de sa combustion a été développé et identifié à l'aide de mesures expérimentales. L'optimisation de l'étape de régénération du catalyseur a ensuite été effectuée. Pour l'étape de déshydratation, un modèle cinétique qui permet de simuler simultanément la déshydratation du glycérol, la formation du coke et la variation de l'activité du catalyseur a été développé et identifié à l'aide de mesures expérimentales. / In this work, modeling, simulation and optimization of multitubular gas/solid fixed bed catalytic reactors for acrolein production from propylene or from glycerol are investigated. The first part of the work deals with the catalytic oxidation of propylene to acrolein. Different kinetic and reactor models are developed and the unknown parameters involved are identified from experimental measurements. A set of operating variables that maximize the yield of key products then determined using the validated reactor model. The second part of the work is devoted to the production of acrolein from glycerol. This part consists of two steps: a glycerol dehydration step and a catalyst regeneration step. A two-dimensional heterogeneous model is developed. In the catalyst regeneration step, a kinetic model enabling the identification of the concentration and initial compositions of the coke and the prediction of its combustion process is developed and identified using experimental measurements. The optimization of the operating conditions of the regeneration step is then carried out. In the dehydration step, a kinetic model that allows the simultaneous simulation of glycerol dehydration, coke formation and catalyst activity variation is developed and identified by means of experimental measurements.

A liquid Cooled below its normal freezing temperature is known as a supercooled liquid. On further cooling, supercooled liquids crystallize to thermodynamically stable, ordered structures. Alternatively, if the cooling rate is fast enough, the crystallization may be avoided altogether. Below a particular temperature during rapid cooling the liquid will solidify into a disordered, amorphous phase -also known as the glassy phase of matter. This particular temperature is termed the ”glass transition temperature” (Tg). Unlike a crystalline solid, a glass is neither a thermodynamically stable phase nor does it possess long range molecular ordering. Very slow structural relaxation (in the time scale of ∼ 100 s) is always present in the glassy phase. Thus, this phase is often referred to as a metastable phase of matter. Experimental and theoretical studies related to the behavior of supercooled liquids are the subject matter of many investigations for the last few decades [1]. These studies find their applications in diverse fields such as geology, cryopreservation, glaciology and atmospheric science. However, properties of supercooled liquids and the corresponding amorphous phase are not completely understood at present, particularly for hydrogen bonded (H-bonded) systems. This thesis concerns both the crystallization and the glass formation process of H-bonded systems. The systems of interest are water, the commonly accepted universal solvent, and the aqueous binary mixture of glycerol and water. The technique of molecular probing is often used to study the cooperativety and rotational diffusion of supercooled liquids and for determination of the glass transition temperature. For the present set of work, a molecular probe technique called spin probe ESR is extensively used. Electron paramagnetic resonance or electron spin resonance (EPR/ESR) measures the electronic energy level separation and is well known for the high sensitivity. All of the systems studied in the present set of work are diamagnetic. This issue is circumvented by dissolving paramagnetic spin probe molecules, which are usually organic free radicals with one N-O group, into the systems. Spin probes are added in very low concentrations (~10-3M) to minimize the effect on the host system and also to avoid mutual interactions between them. The unpaired electron delocalized in the direction of the N-O bond serves as the paramagnetic center required for an ESR experiment. The splitting of electron energy level due to the external magnetic field (Zeeman splitting) can give rise to resonance absorption of energy if exposed to a microwave of appropriate frequency. There is also a magnetic coupling (hyperfine) between the spin of the unpaired electron and nuclear spin of the nearby nitrogen atom. The hyperfine coupling splits each electron energy levels, to the first order, symmetrically into three levels. The transitions between these levels -subject to appropriate selection rules -give rise to the ESR spectrum [2]. The spectral shape in a magnetic field sweep ESR experiment appears complex if randomly oriented spin probes are dispersed in an amorphous or polycrystalline solid matrix. The high degree of mobility in probe molecules, present in a liquid solution, can average out the individual anisotropy of magnetic tensors to get a spectrum of three equally spaced liens. Experiments can be performed spanning a spin probe reorientation timescale of 10-7-10-12 s typically in the temperature range of 4.2 -300K. In chapter one we have given a brief overview of the supercooled liquids and the phase transitions related to the present work. Particular emphasis has been given to the dynamical features of the supercooled liquid close to its glass transition temperature and their classification based on the degree of ’fragility’ [3]. Brief general introductions of the systems studied in each of the following chapters are also provided. Then, the details of ESR spectroscopy and a quantum mechanical picture of the method of spin probe ESR have been discussed [4]. A separate section has been devoted to the numerical and analytical methods used to analyze the spectrum to extract information related to the spin probe dynamics [5]. The chapter concludes with a description of the ESR spectrometer. In chapter two we have studied the glass transition and dynamics of the supercooled water by the method of spin probe ESR. The vitrification has been done by direct exposure of the bulk water sample, doped with the spin probe TEMPOL, to the liquid helium flow. The vitrified matrix turns into the ultraviscous liquid above the putative glass transition temperature of ~136 K which further transforms to cubic ice (Ic) above TX ~150 K. The supercooled fraction of water, along with the spin probes which are treated as impurities by the crystallized surroundings, remain trapped inside the veins or triple junctions of the ice grains which serve as the interfacial reservoir of impurities in a polycrystalline ice matrix. The spectra for the entire temperature range have been analyzed with the help of in-depth computation by modelling the reorientation of TEMPOL in terms of the jump angle θs and the rotational correlation time τ [5]. This model, based on a homogeneous mobility scenario of the spin probe, works nicely except in the temperature range of 140-180 K. Dynamical heterogeneity (DH) is apparent in this temperature range and a more mobile (fast) component, as compared to the one corresponding to the very slow dynamics of TEMPOL at lower temperatures (slow), is observed. The relative weight of the fast and the slow component changes with temperature and above ~180 K the entire spectrum changes into the motionally narrowed triplet. The temperature dependence of the slow component of τ shows a change in slope at a temperature close to the putative glass transition temperature of water. The fast component of τ exhibits a fragile, i.e. non-Arrhenius character at high temperature with a crossover to a strong, i.e. Arrhenius behavior below ~225 K, close to the hypothesized fragile-to-strong crossover (FSC) for water at TFSC ~228 K. The breakdown of the Debye-Stokes-Einstein (DSE) law is observed when the τ values are combined with the available viscosity data of water to evaluate the DSE ratio, paralleling the SE breakdown which has recently been observed in nanoconfined water [6]. The dynamical heterogeneity is thought to be closely associated with the static structural heterogeneities of supercooled water. The existence of large scale structural fluctuations spanning a range of low-and high-density phases of liquid water have been associated with the heterogeneous dynamics sensed by TEMPOL. Motivated by the Arrhenius like behavior of the slow component, it has been identified with the low density liquid (LDL). The fragile nature of the fast component at high temperature may be identified with that of the high density liquid (HDL) which is the predominant fraction in liquid or weakly supercooled water [6]. Chapter three reports the studies on freezing and dynamics of the supercooled water trapped inside the veins of a polycrystalline ice matrix by dissolving spin probes TEMPO and TEMPOL into it. When a millimolar spin probe aqueous solution is cooled below the freezing point of water, the spin probes -driven by the mechanism described above migrate to the liquid environment inside the ice veins. Local concentration of the probe molecules inside the veins can go up to 1-10 M [7]. Bulk crystallization is evident in differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies whereas the liquid environment of the spin probe below the bulk freezing is confirmed by its narrow triplet ESR spectrum. A sudden collapse of this narrow triplet into a single broad line indicates the freezing of the trapped water fraction which usually happens well below the DSC freezing point for both the probes. The spin probe detected freezing point of this interstitial water is found to be largely dependent on the properties and the amount of the dissolved probe molecules. An explanation is sought in terms of the ’destructuring effect’ on the tetrahedral ordering of the water H-bond network by both the high local concentration of the spin probes and the hydrogen bond strength, formed between the water and the spin probe molecules through the polar groups of the latter [8, 9]. These two factors are thought to play important roles in determining the reorientational dynamics of the spin probe molecules, as well. The rotational correlation times of the two probes exhibit a crossover owing to the different mobility of their salvation shells in the more ordered supercooled water. The observed relaxation behavior of this confined water using the probe TEMPO, which has little effect on water H-bond network, is found in agreement with the previous experimental investigations on water confined in a nanochannel [10]. In chapter four, the glass transition, relaxation and the free volume of the glycerol-water (G-W) system are studied over the glycerol concentration range of 5 -85 mol% with TEMPO as the spin probe. G-W mixture is intrinsically inhomogeneous due to the well established phase segregation below a critical glycerol concentration of 40 mol%. In the inhomogeneous regime the water molecules tend to form cooperative domains besides the mesoscopic G-W mixture [11]. Samples are quenched by rapid cooling down to 4.2 K inside the spectrometer cryostat. Spectra were recorded on slow heating of the sample in the temperature range of 130 -305 K. The glass transition temperature is correlated to the sharp transition of the extrema separation of the ESR spectrum. The glass transition temperatures are found to follow a concentration dependence which is closely associated to the mesoscopic inhomogeneities of the G-W system. The steady enhancement in fragility of the G-W system with the addition of water is evident from the temperature dependence of the spin probe correlation time τ for the entire concentration range. In the temperature range of 283 -303 K, the DSE law is followed i.e. the spin probe reorientation process is found to be strongly coupled to the system viscosity. In this regime, the τ values have been used along with the available viscosity data to calculate the effective volume V of the spin probe for the entire concentration range. The spin probe effective volume is a measure of the available free volume of the host matrix. A drastic change in the quantity is seen in the vicinity of the 40 mol% glycerol concentration owing to a similar structural change of the matrix due to the formation of mesoscopic scale inhomogeneities below the critical concentration [12]. The thesis concludes with a discussion about the possible future directions of research.

Background and aims: Lung recruitment maneuvers (brief episodes of high airway pressure) are a modern treatment alternative to achieve open lung conditions under mechanical ventilation of patients with acute lung injury. It is well known that positive pressure ventilation with high airway pressures cause negative circulatory effects, and that the effects on regional vascular beds can be even more pronounced than the systemic effects. Hypoperfusion of the mesenteric vascular bed can lead to tissue ischemia and local inflammation. This intestinal inflammation has been associated with subsequent development of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, a syndrome that still carries a high mortality and is a leading cause of death for intensive care patients. The aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate whether lung recruitment maneuvers would cause negative effects on mesenteric circulation, oxygenation or metabolism. Methods and results: In an initial study on ten patients with acute lung injury, we could demonstrate a trend towards a decreased gastric mucosal perfusion during three repeated lung recruitment maneuvers. To more closely examine this finding, we set up an oleic acid lung injury model in pigs, and in our second study we established that this model was devoid of inherent intestinal effects and was adequate for subsequent studies of intestinal effects of lung recrutiment maneuvers. In the acute lung injury model, we also tested the effect of an infusion of a vasodilating agent concurrent with the recruitment maneuvers, the hypothesis being that a vasodilating agent would prevent intestinal vasoconstriction and hypoperfusion. We could show that three repeated lung recruitment maneuvers induced short term negative effects on mesenteric oxygenation and metabolism, but that these findings were transient and short lasting. Further, the effects of prostacyclin were minor and opposing. These findings of relative little impact on the intestines of lung recruitment maneuvers, lead us to investigate the hypothesis that repeated recruitment maneuvers maybe could elicite a protective intestinal preconditioning response, a phenomenon previously described both in the rat and in the dog. However, in our fourth study, using both classical ischemic preconditioning with brief periods of intestinal ischemia or repeated lung recrutiment maneuvers, we could not demonstrate the phenomenon of intestinal preconditioning in the pig. Conclusions: We conclude, that from a mesenteric point of view, lung recruitment maneuvers are safe, and only induce transient and short lasting negative effects. We also conclude that the cause of the minor effects of lung recruitment maneuvers is not dependent on intestinal preconditioning.

No description available.

Ce travail porte sur l'étude des mécanismes de mélange et dispersion d'un jet d'hélium dans une cavité semi-confinée remplie d'air. Ce phénomène est ici pris comme un cas mdèle de l'injection d'un gaz léger dans un fluide plus lourd, produisant ainsi un panache. Ce thème est en lien avec la sécurité des systèmes basés sur l'hydrogène. Un modèle numérique a été développé combinant les conditions limites adéquates avec les équations de conservation de la masse du mélange, d'une espèce, de la quantité de mouvement, ainsi que la loi d'état et la variation des propriétes physiques. En premier lieu, le panache d'un mélange eau glycérol est considéré comme cas de validation par comparaison avec des résultats expérimentaux [Rogers & Morris 09]. Le développement d'un panache axisymétrique est modélisé pour de grands nombres de Grashof et petit nombres de Reynolds d'injection. Un bon accord est obtenu pour la vitesse d'ascension du panache ainsi que le type et la forme de la tête. Un loi d'échelle modifiée est proposée. Dans le cas du mélange hélium-air, une cavité 2D est tout d'abord considérée. Les lois d'échelle auto-similaires pour des panaches plans stationnaires en milieu infini [Gebhart et al. 88] ont été reproduites numériquement pour les profils de vitesse verticale et de masse volumique sur l'axe, pour les temps avant l'impact du panache sur le plafond. Puis une cavité cylindrique a été considérée pour modéliser une expérience menée au CEA [Cariteau & Tkatschenko 12]. Les résultats numériques sont comparés aux données des expériences et d'un benchmark numérique. L'effet de l'hypothèse d'axisymétrie a été mis en évidence.

Μελετήθηκε ο μεταβολισμός της γλυκερόλης στη ζύμη Yarrowia lipolytica ACA–DC 50109 με έμφαση στη μετατροπή της σε λιπίδια και κιτρικό οξύ, μεταβολικά προϊόντα που παρουσιάζουν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για τη βιοτεχνολογία. Σε καλλιέργειες που πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε βιοαντιδραστήρα διαλείποντος έργου, επί πολλαπλώς περιοριστικού μέσου, διαπιστώθηκε η ύπαρξη τριών διακριτών φάσεων αύξησης που χαρακτηρίζονται από ιδιαίτερα μορφολογικά και βιοχημικά χαρακτηριστικά: η φάση βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας (κατά την οποία συντέθηκαν 4–4,5 g/l βιομάζας), η ελαιογόνος φάση (κατά την οποία πραγματοποιήθηκε συσσώρευση λιπιδίων 20–22% wt/wt επί ξηρής βιομάζας, 90% wt/wt των οποίων ήταν ουδέτερα) και η φάση παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος (κατά την οποία εκκρίθηκαν στο περιβάλλον της αύξησης 14–30 g/l κιτρικού οξέος). Κατά τη διάρκεια των ανωτέρω φάσεων η ζύμη διήλθε από διάφορα μορφολογικά στάδια: μικρού μήκους αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια που κυριάρχησαν των κυττάρων ζύμης κατά τη φάση βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας, ευμεγέθη κύτταρα κατά τη φάση της ελαιογένεσης και μικρού μεγέθους κύτταρα ζύμης κατά τη φάση παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος. Η γλυκερόλη διαπερνά την κυτταροπλασματική μεμβράνη με διευκολυνόμενη διάχυση και καταβολίζεται μέσω των αντιδράσεων της κινάσης της γλυκερόλης – GK και της NAD+ εξαρτώμενης αφυδρογονάσης της 3–P–γλυκερόλης. Την υψηλή ενεργότητα της NAD+ εξαρτώμενης ισοκιτρικής αφυδρογονάσης (NAD+–ICDH) κατά τη διάρκεια της φάσης βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας διαδέχθηκε σημαντική πτώση της ενεργότητάς της, επάγοντας τη λιπογένεση. Απρόσμενη αποδόμηση των αποθεματικών (ουδέτερων) λιπιδίων και σημαντική βιοσύνθεση γλυκολιπιδίων, σφιγγολιπιδίων και φωσφολιπιδίων – Ρ παρατηρήθηκε κατά τη διάρκεια της φάσης παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος, φάση κατά την οποία η ενεργότητα της GK είχε μειωθεί σημαντικά ενώ η ενεργότητα της NAD+–ICDH είχε σχεδόν μηδενιστεί. Το ελαϊκό οξύ ήταν το κυριότερο λιπαρό οξύ ενώ η φωσφατιδυλχολίνη – PC το κύριο Ρ. Σε συνεχές σύστημα καλλιέργειας επί θρεπτικού υλικού περιοριστικού σε άζωτο, βιοσυντέθηκαν περιορισμένες μόνο ποσότητες λιπιδίων (~10% wt/wt, επί της ξηρής βιομάζας), γεγονός που μπορεί αποδοθεί στο ότι δεν υπήρχε μια περιοχή του ειδικού ρυθμού αραίωσης (D, h–1) στην οποία τα ένζυμα – κλειδιά που εμπλέκονται στη λιπογένεση (όπως η ΑΤΡ:κιτρική λυάση – ATP:CL και το μηλικό ένζυμο – ME) να παρουσιάζουν συγχρόνως υψηλές ενεργότητες, ενώ η ενεργότητα της NAD+–ICDH μειώθηκε, όχι όμως σημαντικά, στους χαμηλούς D. Η ενεργότητα της ATP:CL χαρακτηρίστηκε από υψηλές τιμές (60–300 Units/mg DW) σε D 0,033 h–1 ενώ οι μέγιστες τιμές ενεργότητας του ME (650 Units/mg DW) εμφανίστηκαν σε D=0,104 h–1. Τα λιπίδια της ζύμης ήταν περισσότερο ακόρεστα σε ενδιάμεσες τιμές D. Σε όλους τους D η φωσφατιδυλαιθανολαμίνη – PE, η φωσφατιδυλινοσιτόλη – PI και η PC αντιπροσωπεύουν τις κυριότερες κλάσεις των Ρ. Όσον αφορά τη μορφολογία της ζύμης, βρέθηκε ότι σε D<0,055 h–1 επικρατούσαν αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια ενώ σε D 0,055 h–1 παρατηρήθηκαν μόνο κύτταρα ζύμης. Σε πειράματα που πραγματοποιήθηκαν επί θρεπτικού υλικού περιοριστικού σε άζωτο, σε D=0,026 h–1, σε διαφορετικές συγκεντρώσεις διαλυμένου οξυγόνου – DO παρατηρήθηκε αυξημένο ποσοστό του κλάσματος των Ρ επί των ολικών λιπιδίων στις ακραίες σε τιμές DO ( 70% και 7%). Ανεξάρτητα των τιμών DO η PC ήταν η κλάση με το μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό, ακολουθούμενη από την PI και PE. Ειδικότερα το ποσοστό της ΡΕ παρουσιάστηκε ιδιαίτερα αυξημένο σε ενδιάμεσες τιμές DO (20% και 30%). Σε DΟ 50% επικρατούσαν αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια ενώ σε DΟ 50% εμφανίστηκαν στην καλλιέργεια περισσότερα κύτταρα ζύμης. Σε πειράματα που πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε D=0,026 h–1 βρέθηκε ότι ο περιορισμός της αύξησης από ιχνοστοιχεία όπως το μαγνήσιο και το ασβέστιο τα οποία εμπλέκονται σε πολλαπλές κυτταρικές λειτουργίες, είχαν δυσμενή επίδραση στη φυσιολογία της ζύμης, ωστόσο η σύσταση των λιπιδίων σε λιπαρά οξέα δεν επηρεάστηκε από τη φύση του περιοριστικού για την αύξηση παράγοντα. Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή φιλοδοξεί να συμβάλει στη μελέτη της φυσιολογίας των ελαιογόνων μικροοργανισμών και στη χρήση της γλυκερόλης ως υποστρώματος σε μελλοντικές βιοτεχνολογικές εφαρμογές. / In this thesis the metabolism of glycerol in Yarrowia lipolytica ACA–DC 50109, with emphasis on glycerol conversion into value–added biotechnological products, such as single cell oils and citric acid, was studied. The growth of Y. lipolytica was studied in bioreactor batch cultures in multiple limited medium and three distinct phases were identified during growth cycle. In each phase, yeast cells were characterized by specific morphological and biochemical features: biomass formation phase (in which 4–4.5 g/l of biomass were synthesized), lipogenic phase (in which 20–22% lipids wt/wt in dry weight were accumulated in biomass, containing 90% wt/wt neutral lipids) and citric acid production phase (in which 14–30 g/l of citric acid were secreted in the growth environment). Distinct cellular forms of Y. lipolytica were developed during the above phases: in biomass formation phase short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant while a few yeast–like cells were observed, in lipogenic phase large obese cells were predominant and in citric acid production phase cells size was diminished. Glycerol passes into the microbial cell by facilitated diffusion. Y. lipolytica successfully converts glycerol via phosphorylation pathway, in which glycerol kinase (GK) and glycerol–3–P–dehydrogenase are implicated. Though high activity of NAD+ dependent isocitric dehydrogenase (NAD+–ICDH) was detected during biomass formation phase, this activity was significantly decreased afterwards inducing lipogenesis. Surprisingly, storage (neutral) lipid turnover and synthesis of glycolipids, sphingolipids and phospholipids – Ρ simultaneously occurred with citric acid production, and happened when GK activity was considerably reduced and NAD+–ICDH activity was minimised. Oleic acid was the major fatty acid in all lipid fractions and phosphatidylcholine – PC was the main Ρ. In continuous culture in nitrogen limited medium Y. lipolytica accumulated low quantities of lipids (~10% w/w, in dry weight), maybe due to the fact that there was not a region of specific dilution rate (D, h–1) in which the key–enzymes that are implicated in lipogenesis (i.e. ΑΤΡ:citrate lyase – ATP:CL and malic enzyme – ME) presented simultaneously high activity while NAD+–ICDH activity was insignificantly decreased in low D. ATP:CL presented high activity (60–300 Units/mg DW) in D 0,033 h–1 while ME presented maximum activity (650 Units/mg DW) in D=0,104 h–1. Lipids were more unsaturated in intermediate D values while phosphatidylethanolamine – PE, phosphatidylinositol – PI and PC are the main Ρ classes. As far as the morphology is concerned, in D<0,055 h–1 short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant in culture medium while in D 0,055 h–1 only yeast cells were observed. In experiments performed in nitrogen limited medium in D=0,026 h–1 in different dissolved oxygen – DO concentrations, it was found that in extreme DO values ( 70% and 7%) the percentage of P was increased. Independently the DO concentration PC was the main class followed by PI and PE. The morphology of Y. lipolytica was influenced by the different concentration of DO and it was observed that in DΟ 50% short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant in culture medium while in DΟ 50% more yeast cells were appeared. In experiments performed in D=0,026 h–1, it was found that the absence of micronutrients from the growth medium, i.e. magnesium and calcium that are implicated in multiple cellular functions, had severe effects in yeast physiology, while the fatty acid composition of cellular lipids was not affected by the nature of the growth limiting factor. The present thesis aspires to contribute in the study of oleaginous microorganisms’ physiology and in use of glycerol as substrate in future biotechnological applications.

Les nanoparticules métalliques (MNPs) ont un grand succès dans les dernières décennies dû à la variété d'applications dans différents domaines (microélectronique, matériaux, catalyse). Mis à part les solvants organiques, les liquides ioniques, l'eau, le CO2 supercritique et les polyols, en particulier le glycérol, ont démontré leur capacité à stabiliser et immobiliser les nanoparticules métalliques. Ces milieux évitent l'agglomération des MNPs et facilitent leur recyclage. Des nanoparticules de Pd(0) et Ni(0) dans le glycérol, sphériques, petites en taille et bien dispersées, ont été synthétisées avec succès à partir d'une méthodologie simple sous pression d'hydrogène, en présence de différents stabilisants (alkaloïdes, phosphine, polymer). La caractérisation complète de ces matériaux en solution et à l'état solide, ainsi que la possibilité de faire des synthèses à grande échelle et de stocker les solutions catalytiques longtemps, montrent la grande stabilité de ces solutions colloïdales. Les nanoparticules dans le glycérol ont été impliquées dans une large variété de transformations : hydrogénations, hydrodéhalogénations, couplages de Hiyama, additions conjuguées et hydrosilylations. De plus, nous avons étudié l'effet du stabilisant sur la réactivité catalytique, nous permettant de contrôler l'état de surface des nanoparticules et moduler ainsi leur réactivité. Nous avons montré, de même, la capacité du glycérol pour immobiliser les catalyseurs, ce qui s'est traduit par la possibilité de recycler la phase catalytique entre 4 et 10 fois sans perte de metal. En parallèle, nous avons évalué le comportement du Ni(OAc)2 libre de ligands dans le glycérol, en tant que catalyseur alternatif pour des couplages C-C et C-hétéroélément. Nous présentons aussi une étude en flux continu, en collaboration avec la Maison Européenne des Procédés Innovants (MEPI), pour l'hydrogénation de différents groupes fonctionnels, en utilisant les PdNPs dans le glycérol synthétisées préalablement. / Metal nanoparticles (MNPs) have been largely studied in the last decades due to their interesting properties which found applications in several fields (microelectronics, materials and catalysis, among others). In contrast to common organic solvents, ionic liquids, water, supercritical CO2, polyols such as glycerol, represent innovative solvents for the immobilization of MNPs, avoiding their agglomeration and facilitating their recycling. Small, spherical, and well-dispersed Pd(0) and Ni(0) nanoparticles were synthesized under hydrogen pressure in glycerol, in the presence of different kinds of stabilizers (cinchona-based alkaloids, phosphine, polymer). The high stability of these colloidal solutions permitted the full characterization both in solution and at solid state, large-scale synthesis, and stocking the solutions for months. These colloidal catalysts were applied in a large variety of transformations including hydrogenations, hydrodehalogenations, Hiyama C-C couplings, hydrosilylation reactions, and Michael conjugate additions. Furthermore, we conducted a comparative study exhibiting the differences in catalytic reactivity by effect of the stabilizer, allowing us tuning the surface-state of the nanoparticles. Moreover, we showed the ability of glycerol to immobilize metal nanoparticles permitting the recycle of the catalytic phase between 4 and 10 times, without metal leaching. Additionally, we studied the behavior of ligand-free Ni(OAc)2 in glycerol as an alternative catalyst for C-C and C-heteroatom couplings. Also, we developped a continuous flow study, in collaboration with the Maison Européenne des Procédés Innovants (MEPI), for the hydrogenation of different functional groups, using PdNPs in glycerol

Au cours des dernières années, la production excédentaire et sans cesse croissante de bioglycérol a provoqué une chute spectaculaire de son prix. Au cours des dernières années, un grand nombre de processus chimiques et biologiques ont été élaborés pour transformer le bioglycérol en divers produits à haute valeur ajoutée, tels que la dihydroxyacétone, l'acide glycolique, le 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO), l'acide glycérique, l'acide lactique, le carbonate de glycérol etc. Malheureusement, ces procédés souffrent de nombreux inconvénients comme par exemple, un coût élevé de production. Par conséquent, dans cette étude, une synthèse simple et robuste, basée sur un processus électrochimique a été introduite afin de convertir le bioglycérol en une grande variété de composés à haute valeur ajoutée. Cette étude rapporte pour la première fois l'utilisation de la résine Amberlyst-15 comme milieu réactionnel et comme catalyseur d'oxydo-réduction pour la conversion électrochimique du glycérol. La performance électrochimique du système composé par la résine Amberlyst-15 et l’électrode au platine (Pt), a été comparée à celle utilisant un milieu électrolytique conventionnel acide (H2SO4) ou alcalin (NaOH). D'autres paramètres tels que la température de réaction (température ambiante à 80 °C) et l’intensité du courant appliqué (1,0 A à 3,0 A) ont également été examinés. Dans les conditions expérimentales optimales, ce nouveau procédé électrocatalytique permet de convertir le glycérol, soit en acide glycolique, avec un rendement de 45% et une sélectivité élevée de 65%, soit en acide glycérique, avec un rendement de 27% et une sélectivité de 38%. D’autre part, deux autres électrodes ont été préparées et testées dans la réaction de transformation du glycérol : une électrode au charbon actif (ACC) et une électrode composite au noir de carbone et diamant CBD). A notre connaissance, il n’existe pas dans la littérature d’étude de transformation électrochimique du glycérol utilisant ce type d’électrodes. Dans ce travail, nous avons montré que le glycérol peut être oxydé en divers composés d’oxydation mais peut également être réduit avec succès en acide lactique,1,2-PDO et 1,3-PDO. Trois paramètres de fonctionnement, tels que la quantité de catalyseur (6.4 -12.8% w/v), la température de réaction [température ambiante (27°C) à 80 °C] et l’intensité du courant appliqué (1,0 A à 3,0 A), ont été testés. L'étude a révélé que, pour une quantité de catalyseur 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15, un courant de 2,0 A et une température de 80 °C, la sélectivité en acide glycolique peut atteindre jusqu'à 72% et 68% (avec un rendement de 66% et 58%) en utilisant respectivement l’électrode ACC et l’électrode CBD. L'acide lactique a aussi été obtenu avec une sélectivité de 16% et un rendement de 15% en utilisant l’électrode ACC et une sélectivité de 27% pour un rendement de 21% dans le cas de l'électrode CBD. Enfin, l'électrooxydation et l'électro-réduction du glycérol a été effectuée dans une cellule à deux compartiments séparés par une membrane échangeuse de cations (Nafion 117). L’étude s’est focalisée sur l’électro-réduction. Trois cathodes (Pt, ACC et CDB) ont été évaluées dans les conditions suivantes : 2.0 A, 80 °C et 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15. Les trois électrodes ont permis de réduire le glycérol en 1,2-PDO. Nous avons obtenu une sélectivité de 61% avec l’électrode au Pt et une sélectivité de 68% avec L’électrode CBD. En fait, c’est l’électrode ACC qui a démontré les meilleures performances puisqu’elle a permis de réduire le glycérol en 1,2-PDO avec une sélectivité élevée de 85%. Enfin, la réaction conduit aussi à la formation d’acétol et de diéthylèneglycol. Les mécanismes de formation des différents produits obtenus à partir de chaque réaction sont proposés. / The price of crude glycerol has significantly decreased worldwide because of its oversupply. Many chemical and biological processes have been proposed to transform glycerol into numerous value-added products, such as glycolic acid, 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO), glyceric acid, and lactic acid. However, these processes suffer from several drawbacks, including high production cost. Therefore, in this study, a simple and robust electrochemical synthesiswas developed to convert glycerol into various value-added compounds. This study reports for the first time the use of Amberlyst-15 as a reaction mediumand redox catalyst for electrochemical conversion of glycerol. In the first part, the electrochemical performance of Amberlyst-15 over platinum (Pt)electrode was compared with that of conventional acidic (H2SO4) and alkaline (NaOH) media. Other parameters such as reaction temperature [room temperature (27°C) to 80 °C] and applied current (1.0 A to 3.0 A) were also examined. Under the optimized experimental condition, this novel electrocatalytic method successfully converted glycerol into glycolic acid after 8 h of electrolysis, with a yield of 45% and selectivity of 65%, as well as to glyceric acid after 3 h of electrolysis, with a yield of 27% and selectivity of 38%. In the second part of this study, two types of cathode electrodes, namely, activated carbon composite(ACC) and carbon black diamond (CBD) electrodes, were used in electrochemical conversion of glycerol. To the best of our knowledge, electrochemical studies of glycerol conversion using these electrodes have not been reported yet. Glycerol was also successfully reduced to lactic acid, 1,2-PDO, and 1,3-PDO, in addition to oxidation compounds (e.g. glycolic acid). Three operating parameters, namely, catalyst amount (6.4% to 12.8% w/v), reaction temperature [room temperature (27 °C) to 80 °C], and applied current (1.0 A to 3.0 A), were tested. In the presence of 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15 at 2.0 A and 80 °C, the selectivity of glycolic acid can reach 72% and 68% (with yield of 66% and 58%) for ACC and CBD electrodes, respectively. Lactic acid was obtained as the second largest compound, withselectivity of 16% and yield of 15% for the ACC electrode and 27% selectivity and 21% yield for the CBD electrode. Finally, electro-oxidation and electroreduction of glycerol were performed in a two-compartment cell separated by a cation exchange membrane (Nafion 117). This study only focused on the electroreduction region. Three cathode electrodes (Pt, ACC, and CBD) were evaluated under the following conditions: 2.0 A, 80 °C, and 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15. ACC demonstrated excellent performance in the electroreduction study and successfully reduced glycerol to 1,2-PDO, with a high selectivity of 85%. The selectivity of 1,2-PDO on Pt and CBD was 61% and 68%, respectively. Acetol and diethylene glycol were also obtained. The reaction mechanisms underlying the formation of these products are then proposed.