This thesis aims at providing a literature review of the academic debate regarding the use of childhood iconography in the humanitarian sector. This topic is not new and has been broadly discussed by academics since decades. Therefore, by using the alreadyexisting literature on the subject, this paper provides an in-depth understanding of the main arguments and controversies that have been made regarding the use of such images in the humanitarian field. In order to do so, it analyzes two famous pictures which produced considerable discussion in the research field: “The Struggling Girl” taken by Kevin Carter in South Sudan, in 1993 and “Alan Kurdi” photographed on a Turkish beach by Nilüfer Demir, in 2015. Overall, the study of the discourses generated by these two photographs exemplifies the diverging opinions of scholars on the topic and sheds light on the power relations and stigmas that persist within the humanitarian sector.

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This Paper examines the minting of coins during the reign of queen Christina of Sweden (Reign 1632-1654) from the area surrounding The Baltic Sea. The coins (seven types) that this essay seeks to analyze are minted in present day’s Estonia and Latvia and shows that even if the wishes of queen Christina are to get the new Baroque fashion to her aid in the making of the coins, they still remain at the style of the Renaissance era at large. Even if the standard of the coins does not reach the standard of the coins made in southern Europe, the various ways queen Christina is portrayed are also not explained solely by lack of monetary means from the Swedish State. Local Baltic resistance or Swedish politics might be reasons for the looks of the images of the monarch as well. The symbols of the coining reveal references to previous protestant heroes aiming to promote the legacy of Monarchy and portraits Christina as a Queen of Peace. By submitting the coining at hand some of the methods contained by the 20th-century thinkers Erwin Panofsky (1892- 1968) and Heinrich Wölfflin’s (1864–1945) theories, underlying features of meaning and understanding is thus possibly revealed.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although the traditional viewpoint of the Ancient Egyptian civilisation is one of isolation and self containment, in fact Egypt and Syro-Palestine had a long history of contact and interaction before the Late Bronze Age, albeit somewhat tenuous and ad hoc. The commencement of the New Kingdom in Egypt heralded a more vigorous period of exchange. This was largely due to the Egyptian policy of increased commercial activity and military campaigns in Syro-Palestine as well as the rising strength of the Asiatic peoples. At the personal level there was always a trend of Asiatics moving into Egypt in search of a better life, which opened the door for the Hyksos rule at the end of the Middle Bronze Age. This foreign rule was an affront on the dignity of the Egyptians. Thus, following numerous military campaigns much of Syro-Palestine was incorporated into the wider Egyptian political entity. In counterpoint to the situation in Egypt, Syro-Palestine was very far from isolated, situated in the open cultural landscape of Syria and Mesopotamia it was the very hub of the Ancient Near East. Inevitably there was considerable interaction, and throughout history, as even today, Syro-Palestine is a crossroads and melting pot of different peoples. At the forefront of any exchange were religious ideas, religious traditions were introduced and foreign gods were spread far and wide. The international nature of the gods seems to have been a characteristic of the Ancient Near East. In this scenario were the Egyptian god Seth and his counterpart the Syro-Palestinian god Baaal, each with a complex story, wherein the iconographical and textual evidence of the gods show much commonality. The association of Seth with Baaal in Egypt is clear, the name of Baaal being written with the Seth-animal determinative, whereas Syro-Palestine has the Mami stele from Ugarit. Major events shook the Ancient Near East ca. 1500-1000 BCE, Egypt reached its apogee and ruled the East; providing the most likely answer regarding the presence and worship of Seth in Syro-Palestine. Certainly Seth was present and worshipped, naturally the massive numbers of Egyptian military and diplomatic personnel required facilities for this practice. Since the earlier Hyksos rulers accepted and worshipped Seth this predicates on a continuum into the period in question. To summarize: Seth equals Baaal and Baaal equals Seth. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel die tradisionele siening van die antieke Egiptiese beskawing een van isolasie en selfonderhouding is, het Egipte en Siro-Palestina in werklikheid ʼn lang geskiedenis van kontak en interaksie voor die Laat Bronstydperk gehad, hoewel ietwat beperk en ad hoc. Die aanvang van die Nuwe Koninkryk in Egipte het ʼn meer dinamiese tydperk van wisselwerking ingelui. Dit was grootliks weens die Egiptiese beleid van toenemende handelsaktiwiteit en militêre veldtogte in Siro-Palestina, asook die opkomende mag van die Asiatiese volke. Op persoonlike vlak was daar altyd ʼn neiging van Asiate om na Egipte te trek op soek na ʼn beter lewe, wat die deur vir die Hiksosheerskappy aan die einde van die Middel-Bronstydperk oopgemaak het. Hierdie vreemdelinge heerskappy was ʼn belediging vir die waardigheid van die Egiptenare. Gevolglik, na afloop van talle militêre veldtogte is die meerderheid van Siro-Palestina in die breër Egiptiese politieke entiteit ingelyf. In teenstelling met die situasie in Egipte was Siro-Palestina alles behalwe geïsoleer. Geleë in die oop kulturele landskap van Sirië en Mesopotamië was dit die ware middelpunt van die Ou Nabye Ooste. Daar was noodwendig aansienlike interaksie, en regdeur die geskiedenis, soos selfs vandag nog, is Siro-Palestina ‟n kruispad en smeltkroes van verskillende volke. Aan die voorpunt van enige wisselwerking was godsdienstige idees, godsdienstige tradisies was ingevoer en uitheemse gode wyd en syd versprei. Die internasionale aard van die gode blyk ʼn kenmerk van die Ou Nabye Ooste te wees. In hierdie scenario was die Egiptiese god Seth en sy Siro-Palestynse eweknie Baäl, elk met ʼn komplekse storie, waarin die ikonografiese en tekstuele bronne van die gode baie ooreenstemming toon. Die verbintenis van Seth met Baäl is duidelik in Egipte, waar Baäl se naam met die Seth-dier as determinatief geskryf is, terwyl Siro-Palestina die Mami-stela van Ugarit het. Groot gebeurtenisse het die Ou Nabye Ooste ca. 1500-1000 v.C. geskud, Egipte het sy hoogtepunt bereik en oor die Ooste geheers, wat die mees waarskynlike antwoord aangaande die teenwoordigheid en aanbidding van Seth in Siro-Palestina verskaf. Seth was ongetwyfeld teenwoordig en aanbid, natuurlik het die enorme getalle Egiptiese militêre en diplomatieke personeel fasiliteite vir hierdie praktyk vereis. Aangesien die vroeëre Hiksosheersers Seth aanvaar en aanbid het, bevestig dit ‟n kontinuum in die periode onder bespreking. Om op te som: Seth is gelyk aan Baäl en Baäl is gelyk aan Seth.

Les représentations monumentales de la Mise au tombeau du Christ constituent l’un des sujets de prédilection en sculpture aux XVe et XVIe siècles. Longtemps, leur historiographie s’est contentée d’observations stylistiques sans marquer d’intérêt concernant les raisons de leur popularité. Pourtant, l’émergence de ce motif iconographique bien particulier – sans référent direct dans les Écritures – ainsi que la grande diversité des lieux d’implantation (cathédrale et église paroissiale, chapelle seigneuriale ou d’hôpital), allant de pair avec celle des donateurs, incitent à un examen attentif des contextes de commande, d’un point de vue historique, politique, économique mais aussi intime. À partir de l’examen de dossiers choisis pour leur pertinence et la richesse de leur documentation, cette étude propose plusieurs ensembles de réflexions articulés autour des notions de monument funéraire, de l’image de dévotion et de pèlerinage spirituel. Elle met ainsi en lumière l’exceptionnelle polyvalence de ces remarquables groupes sculptés. / The monumental representations of the Christ’s entombment were one of the most sought after sculpted subjects during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Their historiography has long been confined to mere stylistic observations without tackling the issue of the reasons for their immense popularity. However, the emergence of such a distinctive iconographic motif – one that stems from no direct reference in the Scriptures – as well as the great diversity of its locations (cathedral and parish churches, castle or hospital chapels), one which mirrors that of their donators, should lead us to a careful examination of the command contexts, from a historical, political, economic as well as personal viewpoint. By examining several examples chosen for their relevance and their wealth of documentation, the present study offers several chapters of reflections hinging upon such notions as a funeral monument, a devotion image and a spiritual pilgrimage. It thus casts light upon the outstanding polyvalence of these remarkable sculpted groups.

This thesis explores the development of naturalistic rendering of emotion in the art of Greece through facial expression and body posture from 525 to 400. Why does emotional naturalism arise in the art of Greece, and in which particular regions? Why at this period? In which contexts and media? What restrictions on situation and type of figure can be interpolated or reconstructed? The upper chronological limit is based on simple observation. It is about this time, in many media, that naturalistic emotional expression is employed, although there are exceptions that blur this line slightly. The lower limit marks a major historical turning point, a culmination in Beazley's chronology of Attic vase painting and a common dating threshold for small finds. Emotional expression accelerates from the fourth century, and requires a different set of questions. 400 is for this reason held as a strict end-point. Many categories of physical object were considered; gems and coins did not offer substantial results, but are used for comparison. The rest have formed the armature of the thesis. Only original objects are included, as emotionality undergoes marked changes in Hellenistic and Roman copies. The first section treats publically-commissioned sculpture – sculpture integrated into architecture. The second section treats privately-commissioned sculpture, stone and terracotta; the third pottery: black-figure, red-figure and whiteground. Within these sections, material is arranged broadly chronologically. Human figures are the focus, and semi-humans such as Centaurs and satyrs are included; figures with essentially non-human faces such as the Gorgon are not. Human anatomy is constant, so the method of analysis is physiological. Rather than putting facial expressions in folk terms – a frown, a smile – they are described anatomically for precision: by muscular contractions and extensions and their correspondent manifestations on the surface of the body. Moving beyond description to explanation, neurochemistry and psychology are the preferred tools, although neither discipline has a consensus on the nature of emotion or its expression. History, religion, location, maker, commissioner, viewer, medium and technique are brought to bear in order put expressivity in context. An important methodological tool has been the separation of emotional 'input' and ‘output’. Output is the evocation or intended evocation of an emotional state in the viewer, and the thesis is constantly aware of the disconnect between the 'intended audience' and a modern one. It focuses instead on input – the methods used to render the inner state of the figures shown. This has twofold benefit: it avoids insurmountable subjectivity – one might laugh at the expression of fear on a maenad being raped by a satyr, while another might not – and allows for comparison across genre and medium.

Le règne de Septimius Severus (193-211 apr. J.-C.) se situa entre la période de béatitude des Antonins et la crise de l’Empire romain du IIIe siècle. Cet empereur fut acclamé Auguste par ses légions de la Pannonie Supérieure et il fut contraint de se battre pendant quatre ans afin de demeurer au pouvoir. En y incorporant son origine africaine, ces constats pourraient nous porter à voir dans le règne de Severus les prémices de l’évolution entre le Principat et le Dominat, qui se seraient manifestées entre autres à travers son idéologie impériale. Ce mémoire de maîtrise illustre comment cet empereur adhéra à la tradition iconographique établie depuis le règne d’Auguste, et détermine également l’ampleur de ses innovations sur le plan idéologique. Ainsi, avec l’appui des sources iconographiques, épigraphiques et littéraires, nous nous efforçons à démontrer que l’idéologie de Severus. s’intègre dans une continuité évolutive de la perception du pouvoir impérial. / Septimius Severus reigned from 193 to 211 A.D., between the Golden Age of the Antonine dynasty and the third century crisis of the Roman Empire. He was saluted emperor by his legions of Upper Pannonia but was compelled to fight two civil wars to retain power. From this, and his African origin, it could be interpreted that the imperial rule of Severus was the genesis of the evolution from the Principate to the Dominate, expressed through his imperial ideology. This Master’s thesis examines how an emperor of African origin adhered to the iconographic traditions inaugurated under the reign of Augustus, and establishes the degree and nature of his ideological innovations. Founded on literary, epigraphic and iconographical sources, this research will demonstrate that the ideology of Severus was part of the continued evolution of the Romans’ perception of imperial power.

The Cuban-born artist Ana Mendieta (1948-1985) created the Silueta Series during the 1970s and ‘80s. It consists of earth-body works in situ featuring the silhouette of the artist's body fashioned from mud, plants, rocks, gunpowder and other materials. Underlying the creation of the Silueta Series is Mendieta's belief that the elements are sentient and powerful beings. This perception is particularly strong in the Afro-Cuban religion Santeria, a creolized form of the Òrìsà tradition of the Yoruba of West Africa introduced to the Americas during the trans-Atlantic slave trade. While scholars have noted Mendieta's incorporation of Santeria in her art, a thorough analysis of the iconographical references to the deities have yet to be explored. This thesis aims to provide such an analysis of Mendieta's works; thus enriching the current discourse on the Silueta Series.

This thesis examines Etruscan rock-cut tombs that are characteristic for inland southern Etruria and are dated from second quarter of the 6th century BC to the end of 3rd and beginning of the 2nd century BC. Thesis is focused on the architecture of the tombs, their typology, decoration, iconography and their architectural evolution. Main sites in Archaic period are necropoleis in San Giuliano, Blera, Tuscania and for Hellenistic period necropoleis in Norchia, Sovana and Castel d'Asso. Second part of thesis examines the potential of 3D recording, analysis, virtual reconstruction and virtual anastylosis for the study of the tomb façades through the case studies of the "Tomb of the Siren" from necropolis of Sovana and the "Doric Tombs" from necropolis of Norchia. Keywords Etruscans, Etruscan, rock-cut, rupestral, façade, necropolis, 3D modeling, multi-image photogrammetry, virtual reconstruction, virtual anastylosis