本論文共分六章九節，全篇計九萬餘言。第一章緒論，敘述在中國東 北地區的韓人社會背景及本論文的研究旨趣。第二章是義兵與獨立軍在中 國東北的發展，分為三節；第一節了解獨立軍的母體，即舊韓末時期的義 兵形成，義兵展開的反日活動、義兵追求的民族精神以及「三一運動」的 爆發與其影響；第二節敘述獨立軍歷史的背景、獨立軍在中國東北發展的 原因、各獨立軍團體的建立及發展過程；第三節主要述及「韓日合併」後 的在中國東北地區義兵活動與義兵對獨立軍團組織產生的作用。第三章是 獨立軍的組織､養成及裝備，分為兩節；第一節由獨立軍內部組織，觀察 主導勢力情況、及其思想及追求的理念、運用軍隊行政方面的事項等；第 二節討論由養成獨立軍的徵兵制度實施、籌備軍費及武器等的問題。第四 章是獨立軍的戰鬥活動，共分兩節；第一節依時間順序敘述，獨立軍的活 動以表和圖來說明獨立軍攻擊韓國境內的活動狀況；第二節由在中國東北 的獨立軍與日軍交戰中，探討獨立軍的對戰爭的態度、戰役經過、及戰役 影響等。第五章是獨立軍的發展與國際關係，共分兩節；第一節分析中國 政府對中國東北獨立軍活動之取締與放任；第二節主要論及在中國東北的 獨立軍活動所帶來的中、日兩國之間的交涉及處理韓民問題。第六章結論 ，綜述本文研究成果，而了解在中國東北地區韓人獨立運動史上的地位。

In this dissertation, we focus on developing sampling-based algorithms for solving stochastic linear programs. The work covers both two stage and multistage versions of stochastic linear programs. In particular, we first study the two stage stochastic decomposition (SD) algorithm and present some extensions associated with SD. Specifically, we study two issues: a) are there conditions under which the regularized version of SD generates a unique solution? and b) in cases where a user is willing to sacrifice optimality, is there a way to modify the SD algorithm so that a user can trade-off solution times with solution quality? Moreover, we present our preliminary approach to address these questions. Secondly, we investigate the multistage stochastic linear programs and propose a new approach to solving multistage stochastic decision models in the presence of constraints. The motivation for proposing the multistage stochastic decomposition algorithm is to handle large scale multistage stochastic linear programs. In our setting, the deterministic equivalent problems of the multistage stochastic linear program are too large to be solved exactly. Therefore, we seek an asymptotically optimum solution by simulating the SD algorithmic process, which was originally designed for two-stage stochastic linear programs (SLPs). More importantly, when SD is implemented in a time-staged manner, the algorithm begins to take the flavor of a simulation leading to what we refer to as optimization simulation. As for multistage stochastic decomposition, there are a couple of advantages that deserve mention. One of the benefits is that it can work directly with sample paths, and this feature makes the new algorithm much easier to be integrated within a simulation. Moreover, compared with other sampling-based algorithms for multistage stochastic programming, we also overcome certain limitations, such as a stage-wise independence assumption.

董事會組成、結構與運作的特性影響董事會功能的發揮，而董事會功能的強弱則決定企業經營的良窳。董事會的策略功能若能發揮，應可增進公司績效；董事會若能盡到監督的職責，應可降低企業的風險。因此，本研究探討董事會特性對企業績效與風險之影響。有別於其他公司治理的相關文獻多以董事會的獨立性衡量董事會之效能，本研究額外針對董事會成員發展其專業性及參與程度等衡量董事會特性之變數，探討這些變數與公司績效及風險間之關聯性，並進一步納入市場競爭程度與研發強度，分析公司經營特性對董事會特性與公司績效、風險關聯性之影響。 本研究以資產報酬率(ROA)、股東權益報酬率(ROE)、Tobin’s Q (Q)、Jensen Productivity (Jensen)來衡量企業績效，以信用評等(TCRI、RankRisk)、資產報酬率的標準差(sdROA)、股東權益報酬率的標準差(sdROE)來衡量企業風險，從董事會之獨立性、專業性以及參與度探討其對企業績效與風險之影響。研究結果發現，董事會之獨立性可以提升企業績效(ROA、ROE)、降低企業風險(TCRI、RankRisk、sdROA、sdROE)。董監具備會計或法律專業可以提升投資績效(Jensen)，董監之聲譽可以提升企業績效(ROA、Q、Jensen)，但董監若兼職過於忙碌，反而會提高財務風險(sdROA、sdROE)，而董事會之參與度則可以提升企業績效(ROA、ROE)且降低信用風險(TCRI、RankRisk)。此外，市場競爭程度與研發強度影響董事會之獨立性、專業性以及參與度與企業績效、風險之關聯性。相對於低市場競爭程度，在高度市場競爭的環境下，董監具備會計或法律專業可以降低信用風險(RankRisk)，董監過於忙碌會增加企業風險(TCRI、RankRisk、sdROA、sdROE)，而董事會之參與度可以提升企業績效(Q)。相對於低研發強度，在高研發強度的環境下，公司需要內部董監的專屬知識，董事會之獨立性會降低投資績效(Jensen)，但董監具備會計或法律專業可以提升企業績效(ROA、ROE、Q、Jensen)且降低信用風險(TCRI)，董監之聲譽可降低信用風險(TCRI、RankRisk)，而董事會之參與度則可提升企業績效(ROA)。 / The board composition, structure and process influence the effectiveness of the corporate board. The strategy function of the board helps to improve firm performance, while the monitoring function of the board assists to reduce firm risk. This research investigates the impact of board characteristics on firm performance and risk. Different from prior studies that focused mainly on board independence, this research expands board characteristics to include the expertise and attendance aspects of corporate boards. Furthermore, this research incorporates market competition and R&D intensity to analyze their moderating effects on the association between board characteristics and firm performance and risk. This research uses ROA, ROE, Tobin’s Q and Jensen Productivity (Jensen) to measure firm performance, and uses TCRI, RankRisk, sdROA and sdROE to measure firm risk. The research results indicate that boards with higher independence have higher ROA and ROE and lower TCRI, RankRisk, sdROA and sdROE. The boards with accounting or legal expertise directors have higher Jensen, while the boards with more reputable directors have higher ROA, Q and Jensen. However, boards with busy directors have higher sdROA and sdROE. The more attentive boards are found to be associated with higher ROA and ROE and lower TCRI and RankRisk. In addition, the levels of market competition and R&D intensity affect the association between board independence, expertise and attendance and firm performance and risk. For firms operating in the high market competition environment, boards with accounting or legal expertise directors have lower RankRisk, boards with busy directors have higher TCRI, RankRisk, sdROA and sdROE, and more attentive boards have higher Q. For firms with high R&D intensity, boards with greater independence are associated with lower Jensen since these firms require insider directors who have firm-specific knowledge. Moreover, boards with accounting or legal expertise directors tend to have higher ROA, ROE, Q, and Jensen and lower TCRI and more reputable boards have lower TCRI and RankRisk, while more attentive boards have higher ROA.

The aim of this research is to highlight both the conceptual and practical factors that constrain attempts to link humanitarian assistance and development aid in political emergencies in Southern Africa by using the case study of Mozambique in the period between 1975-1995. Extensive use and reference to Norwegian relief and development aid during the above-mentioned period is made. Although cross-reference is made to other donor countries such as the Like-minded Group (comprising of Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland) and UN agencies that supported Mozambique's transition from war to peace, the major focus is on Norway as she has traditionally been the sixth largest bilateral donor by the early 1990's and incorporated long-term development priorities in her programs.

Recent failure of such companies as Enron, Worldcom and Parmala showed that there are internal reasons contributing to company’s financial distress. Financial distress is a condition when a company fails to meet its debt obligations. Board of directors is liable for long-term decisions and their ineffective work in monitoring and controlling management can influence companies’ performance. With that in mind, in this degree project, we would like to answer the following research question: “What is the relationship between characteristics of Board and probability of financial distress, measured by Altman’s Z-score models in Sweden and Denmark?”   The epistemological and ontological choices for our study were positivism and objectivism with deductive approach. We have calculated Z-scores of Swedish and Danish companies in order to detect distressed and healthy companies. Further on, the information about board composition in each company was collected; mainly we were interested in board independence, board size, board ownership, COB ownership, CEO duality and employee representatives.   In order to examine if there is a relationship between board composition and financial distress, we have done Multiple and Binary Regression analyses. Based on the results we can state that board independence, board ownership and employee representatives and market capitalization (control variable) have significant relationship with probability of financial distress. Our study is interesting since we have looked at employee representatives, as a board characterectic that is specific for Nordic countries and that was not studied before. In addition, we have found that there is no CEO duality in Sweden and Denmark, since all companies in our sample followed the Companies’ Acts. COB ownership, the additional variable we wanted to test and board size have shown no significant relationship.

This thesis examines the political, social and, in particular, military conditions that influenced the allegiance of the men and women of the political community of Lothian, that is to say those people with personal landholding, legal and military obligations whose services were crucial to the efficient administration of the sheriffdom and whose support was courted by kings and magnates alike. The key issue is the high degree of survival among these minor landed families. The upper strata of Scottish political society underwent considerable changes in the early to middle fourteenth century through the fortunes of war, in particular through the disinheritance of the Comyn family and their allies early in the reign of Robert I. Some families lost their Scottish properties, such as the Balliols and the Comyns. Others grew in stature; notably the Douglases and, in Lothian specifically, the Setons and the Lauders. Most landholders would probably have been content to retain their inheritances, and indeed, virtually all of the Lothian landed families of the late thirteenth century would seem to have managed to do just that. A high rate of success is not necessarily evidence that something is easily achieved; the retention of family properties was a complex business in wartime. In the period 1296-1314 the political community had to discharge their financial, legal and military burdens to the party currently in charge, but without permanently compromising themselves with the opposition, who might, after all, be in a position to exert lordship themselves at some point in the future. The military burdens are central to this thesis. Army service was a very obvious indication of allegiance. Given the nature of the normal practice of war in thirteenth and fourteenth century Europe, it is inevitable that this study examines the nature and incidence of armoured cavalry service in Lothian. The overwhelming majority of that service was performed by minor landholders. Records of their service in garrisons or their forfeiture as rebels provide us with a guide to the rate and incidence of defections from one party to another and therefore some guide to the degree to which a particular party was able to impose their lordship. The thesis explores the various challenges that faced the lesser landholders and more prosperous tenants and burgesses who lived through the Wars of Independence from the campaign of 1296 which ended the reign of King John and imposed the rule of Edward I, until 1341 when Edinburgh castle was recovered by the Scots from the forces of Edward III. It also questions the extent to which Edward III was able to impose his lordship in Lothian, considers the nature of the forces ranged against him and challenges the perception that only the outbreak of the Hundred Years War prevented the operational defeat of the Bruce party. The siege of Edinburgh castle in 1341 marked the end of the last attempt by an English medieval king to provide Lothian with a government. Naturally this would not have been abundantly apparent at the time; however subsequent English invasions, though they might attack Edinburgh, were not designed to bring about the conquest of Lothian. The political environment of Lothian landholders therefore differed substantially in 1296-41 compared to the century either side of the Wars of Independence in that the minor nobility faced difficult decisions which had to be made on assessments of the likely eventual success of the Balliol, Plantagenet and Bruce parties.

This thesis challenges some of the current limits to the grounds for judicial review of legislation accepted by most Canadian jurists. More specifically, it makes a common law-based argument in favour of the priority over legislation of principles which are implied from the Imperial Constitution Acts 1867-1982 and which originally derive from the English constitution – namely implied constitutional principles. The argument faces two main interrelated legal objections: Parliamentary sovereignty and the Framers’ intentions. The first objection is rebutted by arguing that Parliamentary sovereignty possesses an ability to change in a way that can incorporate substantive legal limitations. The most prevalent common law-based theories of change to Parliamentary sovereignty suggest that the courts can authoritatively determine if implied constitutional principles can check legislation. The second objection is rebutted by reference to the notion of progressive interpretation as conceived under Hartian and Dworkinian theories of law and adjudication. Under these theories, progressive interpretation is an aspect of the courts’ best overall interpretation of the constitution, which includes implied constitutional principles. Such progressive interpretation can result in these principles constraining legislative authority. Justification of the progressive interpretation of implied constitutional principles can be based on the rule of law from which derive a number of these principles. One plausible conception of the Canadian rule of law is that it rejects the view that implied constitutional principles can prevail when in conflict with legislation. However, the better conception is that, as an attempt to adapt implied constitutional principles to relevant changes in society and to protect their underlying values, the judiciary should interpret these principles as capable of checking legislation to the extent that they form part of the core content of the rule of law. Such a conception and an operation of implied constitutional principles can properly be explained by Hartian or Dworkinian common law-based progressive interpretation of these principles and by their relationship with legislative authority.

Le Conseil de sécurité de l'ONU, par sa Résolution 827, institue le 25 mai 1993, un tribunal pénal international (TPIY) ayant pour but du juger les personnes présumées responsables de violations graves du droit international humanitaire commises sur le territoire de l'ex-Yougoslavie depuis 1991. Ainsi, près de cinquante ans après le procès de Nuremberg, des personnes physiques sont à nouveau poursuivies devant une juridiction pénale internationale. Toutefois, depuis ce procès mémorable l'ordre juridique international a beaucoup changé; le TPIY ne ressemble pas au Tribunal militaire de Nuremberg et les conventions relatives aux droits de l'Homme reconnaissent maintenant un droit fondamental à un procès équitable de tout accusé. Notre étude porte sur l'un des aspects du droit à un procès équitable qualifié d'équité systémique et qui comprend le droit d'être jugé par un tribunal établi par la loi, qui soit compétent, indépendant et impartial. Nous analysons les caractéristiques du TPIY à la lumière du droit comparé et plus particulièrement en examinant si cette institution judiciaire internationale répond aux exigences du principe de l'équité systémique tel que défini à l'article 6 de la Convention européenne des droits de l'Homme (CEDH) et tel qu'interprété par la jurisprudence d'une institution judiciaire supranationale, la Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme. Les conclusions de notre étude sont que le TPIY satisfait en partie aux exigences de l'équité systémique; son indépendance et son impartialité sont sujettes à caution selon les paramètres du standard de la CEDH. / On May 25th 1993, the UN Security Council, by its Resolution 827, established an international criminal tribunal (ICTY) for the purpose of prosecuting persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991. Thus, nearly fifty years after the Nuremberg trial, individuals are once again being prosecuted before an international criminal tribunal. However, the international legal order has changed a great deal since this memorable trial: the ICTY is not a carbon copy of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal and the international conventions on Human Rights have recognized to every accused a fundamental right to a fair trial. This thesis analyzes one aspect of the right to a fair trial - the systemic fairness requirement - which encompasses the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial court that is established by law. The study of the characteristics of the ICTY is done with a comparative law perspective. More particularly, this work is answering the fol1owing question: is this international judicial tribunal meeting the requirements of systemic fairness as set forth in section 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and developed in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights? It concludes that the ICTY fulfils these requirements only in part; its independence and impartiality are much dubious with respect to the ECHR standard. / 2002-10

Il est connu que ceux qui ne s’informent pas sur leur passé seront toujours condamnés à répéter les mêmes erreurs et pour déterminer où aller il faut d’abord savoir d’où on vient . La thèse se penche sur l’analyse de plus de deux siècles d’histoire de l’appareil judiciaire malgache à la lumière du concept d’indépendance de la magistrature. L’auteur porte une analyse rétrospective sur une assez longue période qui s’étend de la fin du XVIIIème siècle à nos jours au cours de laquelle il essaie de comprendre l’ensemble des situations ayant prévalu dans le pays témoin, avant, pendant et après la colonisation française. Cette thèse tente d’apporter des argumentaires nouveaux et une méthodologie d’approche nouvelle dans l’analyse de l’appareil judiciaire d’un pays anciennement colonisé. Il s’agit de mettre de côté certaines idées reçues sur les situations des systèmes juridiques des pays anciennement colonisés, notamment malgache et africains. L’étude remet en cause quelques préjugés d’antan qui marquent encore les esprits relativement aux situations précoloniales, à l’arrivée des modèles juridiques occidentaux et plus particulièrement au concept d’indépendance de la magistrature et sa consistance actuelle dans les anciennes colonies, à l’instar de la Grande Île. A travers l'étude du cas particulier de Madagascar, la thèse apporte des réponses à plusieurs questions suscitées par l’acculturation du système juridique des anciennes colonies à partir de leur contact avec les modèles juridiques occidentaux. La question spécifique de recherche consiste à déterminer si le concept d’indépendance de la magistrature est déjà entré dans le système juridique des pays anciennement colonisés comme Madagascar. Pour l’auteur, le concept d’indépendance de la magistrature tel que compris en Occident n’a jamais fait son véritable entrée à Madagascar. Le cadre théorique adopté pour la vérification de l’hypothèse combine le positivisme juridique avec les approches anthropologique et sociologique et se distingue des recherches presque exclusivement positivistes antérieures. Dans la première partie, l’auteur propose le cadre théorique de recherche et rapporte les modes de règlements des conflits à l’époque précoloniale. L’analyse anthropologique de la période a démontré que le concept d’indépendance de la magistrature fut inconnu des traditions judiciaires précoloniales même si une certaine influence occidentale imprégnait le processus de métissage spontanée diligenté par les souverains successifs. Dans la seconde partie, l’auteur livre une analyse de la période coloniale et postcoloniale jusqu’à l’époque contemporaine. Pour la période coloniale, l’ouvrage relate, d’une part, les multiples mesures prises durant les années coloniales, qui éloignèrent le modèle juridique colonial implanté à Madagascar du modèle juridique français original de la métropole. D’autre part, il mesure les impacts de l’instauration du modèle colonial sur les traditions juridiques malgaches précoloniales. Contrairement aux idées reçues, le modèle juridique français et tous ses concepts clés, notamment le concept de séparation des pouvoirs et celui d’indépendance de la magistrature ne furent pas transmis à Madagascar par le fait de la conquête. Ensuite, il a survolé la magistrature des trois républiques successives depuis l’indépendance acquise en 1960. En premier lieu, par une analyse résolument positiviste l’auteur analyse les imperfections initiales des choix et des mesures prises lors de la mise en place du nouveau système juridique de la jeune république durant les premières années de l’indépendance et dont la magistrature malgache est encore tributaire aujourd’hui. En second lieu, par une démarche à la fois positiviste et sociologique, il démontre que les valeurs du concept d’indépendance de la magistrature, reconnues par le système politique et timidement repris par le système juridique, n’ont pas réussi jusqu’ici à pénétrer le cœur de ce dernier / It is well known that those who are unaware of their past will be condemned to repeat the same mistakes in the future and that in order to determine where one should go, it is necessary to know where one comes from. This thesis analyses three hundred years of Malagasy judicial institutions in the light of the concept of independence of the Judiciary; it proposes a retrospective regard on the period extending from the end of the XVIIIth century until now in which the author proposes a reading of all the situations which have occurred in Madagascar before, during and after the French colonization period. Throughout this thesis, the author proposes new approaches as well as a methodology in analysing the judicial institutions of a country formerly colonized. He proposes to set aside certain ideas concerning the situation of formerly colonized countries, notably, Madagascar and, generally, African countries. This research challenges preconceived ideas which are still carried around by many African and Western researchers trained in the West relating to the pre-colonial situations as well as to the importation of Western legal models and their actual survival in former colonies such as Madagascar. From the particular case of Madagascar, the thesis answers many of the questions raised by the acculturation of the legal systems of former colonies after their encounter with Western legal models. The thesis’ central question seeks to determine whether the concept of the independence of the Judiciary is already present in the legal system of formerly colonized countries such as Madagascar. This thesis shows that the Western concept of the independence of the Judiciary has never really penetrated the legal system of Madagascar. The thesis’ theoretical framework combines legal positivism with sociological and anthropological approaches and it differs from the traditional positivistic analysis common to previous researches. In the first part of the thesis, the author proposes a theoretical framework and analyses the dispute resolution mechanisms during the pre-colonial era. The anthropological analysis of this period shows that the concept of the independence of the Judiciary was ignored by the pre-colonial judicial traditions even if a certain Western influence already existed which influenced the process of spontaneous mixing brought forward by the various Kings. In the second part, the author analyses the colonial and post-colonial periods until now. For the colonial era, the study demonstrates on the one hand that numerous measures put forward did distance the legal colonial model implemented in Madagascar from that of the metropolis and, on the other hand, the impacts of the implementation of the colonial model over the precolonized Malagasy legal traditions. Contrary to well received ideas, the author demonstrates that the French legal model and its key concepts, particularly the separation of powers and the independence of the Judiciary, were never transmitted to the colony after the conquest. A description of the judiciary under the three successive republics since 1960 then follows. Through a positivistic analysis, the author analyses the imperfect initial choices made during the initial years of the implementation of the new legal system of the young republic as well as their contemporary impact over the Malagasy Judiciary even today. Through a positivistic as well as sociological approach, the author shows that the values underlying the concept of the independence of the Judiciary recognized by the political system and timidly integrated by the legal system have not succeeded in being fully implemented so far

Cette recherche a bénéficié du soutien de plusieurs organismes. D’abord, je remercie le Conseil de recherche en sciences humaines du Canada (CRSH) de m’avoir accordé la bourse J.A. Bombardier – bourse de recherche pour la maitrise. Je remercie également le département de philosophie pour les quelques bourses de recherche et de voyage qui m’ont été offertes au cours de mes études de deuxième cycle au département. Je tiens finalement à exprimer ma gratitude envers le Groupe de recherche interuniversitaire en philosophie politique (GRIPP) pour son soutient financier ainsi que pour l’expérience enrichissante qu’il m’a promulgué. Une partie de ce mémoire a été présentée en avril 2012 à la Graduate Conference on Global Justice, tenue à la Gallatin School, New York University. / Cette recherche est essentiellement motivée par deux idées : dépasser le débat entre le cosmopolitisme et l’étatisme, et mettre de l’avant des mesures concrètes visant l’éradication de la pauvreté. Je crois qu’il existe des théories convaincantes de la justice globale, qui défendent l’existence de principes de justice au niveau mondial sans avoir à défendre l’implémentation d’un État global ou d’une institution mondiale à caractère étatique. Afin d’examiner ces positions, cette recherche sera structurée autour d’une distinction, celle entre les approches de justice qui dépendent des pratiques qu’elles cherchent à réguler (practice-dependent) et les approches qui sont justifiées indépendamment des pratiques (pratice-independent). J’évaluerai les versions les plus plausibles de ces approches afin de déterminer quelles mesures concrètes visant l’éradication de la pauvreté peuvent y être associées. Parmi les nombreuses objections que l’on peut faire à toute théorie de la justice globale, deux retiendront particulièrement mon attention. D’une part, j’examinerai la justification, la portée et le contenu des théories de la justice globale afin de démontrer que certaines d’entres elles peuvent surmonter la charge du traitement inégal. D’autre part, j’identifierai les agents responsables et les mesures de la justice qu’on peut leur associer, afin de surmonter la charge de l’indétermination des agents. / This research is mainly driven by two ideas: to overcome the debate between statism and cosmopolitanism, and to put forward concrete measures targeting poverty eradication. I believe that there are convincing theories of global justice, which endorse principles of global justice without having to argue for a global state or world government of sorts. In order to examine these positions, this research will be structured around the distinction between accounts of justice that depend on the practices they intend to regulate (practice- dependent) on the one hand and accounts whose justifications do not depend of any practice (practice-independent) on the other. I will assess the more convincing examples of these approaches in order to determine concrete measures targeting poverty eradication that we could derive from them. Of the many objections that can be addressed to any theory of global justice, two will retain my attention in particular. On the one hand, I will examine the justification, scope and content of theories of global justice so as to show that some can overcome the charge of unequal treatment. On the other hand, I will analyse the agents and measures of justice that we could associate with these views in order to surmount the charge of agents’ indeterminacy.