This dissertation is an analysis of aspects of the phonology and morphology of Zenzontepec Chatino (ISO 639-3: czn), a Zapotecan (Otomanguean) language spoken in a remote area of Oaxaca, Mexico (16°32"N, 97°30"W). There are an estimated 8,000 speakers of the language, but its vitality is weakening due to accelerating shift to Spanish. The phonological analysis begins with the segmental inventory. After that, the autosegmental contrasts are treated, with the highlight being the tone system. The tone bearing unit is the mora, which may bear high tone /H/, mid tone /M/, or no tone Ø. In tone systems with a three-way contrast, the unspecified category is usually the mid-level one. Therefore, Zenzontepec Chatino is typologically unusual in this respect. Special chapters are devoted to phonotactics and phonological processes, including a play language of "speaking backwards" that sheds light on crucial phonological questions, such as the status of glottalization and the limits of prosodic domains. There are also chapters on special topics in phonology: regional variation, Spanish loanwords, and sound symbolism. Another chapter bridges the phonology and the morphology, defining and comparing the phonological word versus the grammatical word, and outlining the basic morphological building blocks: roots, affixes, clitics, and particles. After that, lexeme classes are defined using morphosyntactic criteria, providing a syntactic sketch of the language. The language is strongly head-marking with somewhat agglutinating and synthetic morphology. Another chapter gives an overview of verbal morphology, which is the locus of most of the language's morphology. The dissertation is the beginning of a full descriptive grammar and is part of a larger project to document Zenzontepec Chatino, complementing a dictionary and a documentary text corpus recorded in the community with native speakers. The theoretical approach is one in which the language is explored as much as possible on its own terms using naturalistic textual data supplemented by lexicographic and elicited material. The analysis is not bound by any formal framework, but it is informed by socio-cultural and diachronic considerations. It is situated in a typological perspective to offer more of a contribution to the scientific understanding of the structure of human language. / text

O objetivo desta tese é apresentar uma análise para a modificação de grau em Karitiana. Karitiana é uma língua da tronco Tupi, família Arikém, falada por aproximadamente 320 pessoas em uma área demarcada no noroeste do Brasil (Storto e Vander Velden 2005). A tese está dividida em quatro capítulos. O primeiro capítulo é sobre o contexto teórico e sobre algumas características da língua. O conexto teórico é relativo à Semântica Formal. Apresentamos uma introdução sobre esse paradigma teórico e sobre as ferramentas utilizadas para a composição semântica (Heim e Kratzer 1998). A parte sobre o Karitiana apresenta algumas características da língua, como o modo, o tempo, o aspecto e os sintagmas nominais (Storto 1999 e Müller et al. 2006). O segundo capítulo é sobre a metodologia utilizada para a realização dos trabalhos de campo. Discutimos a importância da elicitação controlada de dados para uma pesquisa em Linguística Formal (Matthewson 2004). Discutimos também algumas questões práticas a respeito dos trabalho de campo, como a negociação com os membros da comunidade que fala a língua, assim como os princípios éticos aplicados à pesquisa linguística (Rice 2012). O terceiro capítulo é a respeito dos sintagmas verbais em Karitiana. Primeiramente, fazemos uma discussão sobre a teoria do aspecto lexical (Aktionsart) (Vendler 1957, Verkuyl 1996, Krifka 1998 e Rothstein 2004). Em seguida, apresentamos uma análise sobre a telicidade, a cumulatividade, e a atomicidade dos predicados verbais em Karitiana. Aplicamos os testes clássicos da literatura linguística sobre a telicidade, como o paradoxo do imperfectivo e as expressões com por/em uma hora. Fazemos também uma análise sobre a cumulatividade e a atomicidade em Karitiana. Os resultados obtidos são os seguintes: (i) alguns testes devem ser adaptados para serem aplicados em Karitiana (considerando-se as propriedades de tempo, aspecto e dos sintagmas nominais na língua); (ii) há uma diferença entre predicados télicos e atélicos em Karitiana; (iii) os predicados verbais eventivos são cumulativos e contáveis na língua. O quarto capítulo é sobre a modificação de grau em Karitiana realizada pelo advérbio pita(t) \'verdadeiro/muito/completamente/mesmo\'. Pita(t) pode aparecer nos domínios nominal, adjetival e verbal. Sua interpretação depende do tipo de escala associada ao predicado modificado. Quando pita(t) modifica sintagmas nominais, ele pode ser traduzido por \'verdadeiro\'. Quando pita(t) modifica os sintagmas adjetivais, ele é interpretado como \'muito\', se o adjetivos for de escala aberta, e \'completamente\' se for de escala fechada. No domínio verbal, pita(t) tem uma restrição de distribuição, ele pode aparecer somente com sintagmas com predicados atélicos com uma interpretação de grau, e tem uma interpretação equivalente à do muito do português. Por outro lado, quando se usa pita(t) com predicados télicos (accomplishments e achievements), a interpretação é algo como \'mesmo\'. Para analisar essas características atípicas de pita(t), utilizamos o pano de fundo teórico da Semântica Escalar (Kennedy e McNally 2005, Kennedy 2007). Uma vez que os predicados nominais e verbais não possuem uma escala lexical como os adjetivos graduáveis, propomos uma função de grau Deg que é responsável por fornecer um argumento de grau e uma escala à denotação de nomes e verbos. A escala associada aos predicados nominais é uma escala fechada de precisão e a escala associada aos sintagmas verbais é uma variável, preenchida de acordo com o tipo do verbo. Os predicados atélicos são considerados como predicados que são associados a uma escala aberta e indeterminada, enquanto que os predicados télicos são predicados associados a escalas fechadas e determinadas. Na análise, propomos que pita(t) é um modificador de grau que manipula o grau associado ao ponto de corte da escala representado pelo grau ds em Kennedy (2007), que é o grau normal quando a escala é aberta e o grau máximo quando a escala é fechada. A tese defendida apoia que se considere o ponto de corte de uma escala como um grau disponível para modificação e para que se considere a indeterminação como um traço importante para a tipologia dos predicados graduáveis. / The aim of this dissertation is to present an anaysis of degree modification in Karitiana. Karitiana is a language of the Tupi family, Arikém branch, spoken by about 320 people on a demarcated area in the northwest of Brazil (Storto and Vander Velden 2005). This dissertation is divided in four chapters. The first chapter is about the theoretical framework and about the basic properties of Karitiana grammar. The theoretical framework of this work is Formal Semantics. We present an introduction to this theoretical paradigm and to the tools used for semantic composition (Heim and Kratzer 1998). The part on Karitiana presents some of the basic characteristics of the language, like mood, tense, aspect, and the denotation of nominal phrases (Storto 1999, Müller et al. 2006). The second chapter presents the methodology used in fieldwork. We discuss the importance of controled elicitation as a fieldwork methodology within a research in Formal Linguistics (Matthewson 2004). We also discuss some pratical issues of fieldwork, like the negociation with the comunity members and some ethical principles associated to a research in Linguistics (Rice 2012). The third chapter is on the verbal phrases of Karitiana. First, we discuss the theories on lexical aspect (Aktionsart) (Vendler 1957, Verkuyl 1996, Krifka 1998 and Rothstein 2004). Then we present an analysis of telicity, cumulativity and atomicity of verbal phrases in Karitiana. We apply the classical tests found in the linguistic literature about telicity, like the imperfective paradox and expressions like for/in one hour. We also analyze cumulaticity and atomicity in Karitiana. The theses defended at the chapter are the following: (i) some of tests had to be adapted to be applied in Karitiana (considering the properties of tense, aspect and nominal phrases in the language); (ii) there is a difference between telic and atelic predicates in Karitiana; (iii) eventive verbal predicates are both cumulative and countable in the language. The fourth chapter in on degree modification in Karitiana as performed by the adverb pita(t) \'true/very/completely/a lot/indeed\'. Pita(t) can appear in the nominal, adjectival, and v verbal domains. Its interpretation depends on the type of scale associated to the modified predicate. When pita(t) modifies Noun Phrases, it is interpreted as \'true\'. They can be associated with a closed scale of precision. When pita(t) modifies Adjectival Phrases, it is interpreted as \'very\' if the adjective has an open scale, and as \'completely\' if the adjective has a closed scale. On the verbal domain, pita(t) has a restriction on its distribution. It can appear only with atelic predicates with a degree interpretation. On the other hand, when we use pita(t) with telic predicates (accomplishments and achievements), the interpretation is something like \'indeed\'. To analyze these atypical characteristics of pita(t), we assume a theoretical background based on a Scalar Semantics (Kennedy and McNally 2005, Kennedy 2007). Since nominal and verbal predicates don\'t have a lexical scale like the gradable adjectives we propose a Deg function that is responsible to provide a degree argument and a a scale to the denotation of nouns and verbs. The scale associated to nominal predicates is a closed scale of precision and the scale associated to Verb Phrases is a variable, filled according to the type of the verb. Atelic predicates are considered predicates that are associated to open and indetermined scales whereas telic predicates are associated to closed and determined scales. The analysis we propose is that pita(t) is a degree modifier that manipulates the degree associated with the cutoff point of the scale represented by the degree ds in Kennedy (2007). That cutoff point is the standard degree when the scale is open and the maximal degree when the scale is closed. The thesis defended gives support for considering the cotoff point of a scale as an available degree for modification and for considering indeterminacy as an importanr feature of the typology of gradable predicates.

O presente estudo tem como objeto de análise uma descrição preliminar do sistema fonológico da língua Terena, língua indígena falada na aldeia de Cachoeirinha na região do Mato Grosso do Sul, pertencente à família Aruák. Nosso objetivo foi o de analisar e descrever as unidades distintivas, a estrutura silábica e o padrão acentual que ocorrem nesta língua. No nível segmental foi estabelecido um quadro fonético-articulatório do qual se pôde determinar as unidades distintivas da língua. No nível silábico foram identificados os padrões silábicos (C) V (V). Em relação ao nível acentual, a língua apresenta um sistema de pés binários com cabeça à esquerda e insensível ao peso silábico (troqueu silábico). Para a análise dos dados foi utilizado o modelo fonêmico estruturalista proposto por Pike (1947) bem como dos modelos fonológicos não-lineares autossegmental, prosódico e métrico. O trabalho é composto de quatro partes. No capítulo 1 é apresentada uma classificação das línguas da família Aruák no Brasil. No capítulo 2 a parte segmental (unidades distintivas e alofones). No capítulo 3 a estrutura silábica e no capítulo 4 o padrão acentual. Por fim, apresentamos um estudo (Anexo I) sobre palavras de empréstimo do português em Terena. / The objective of this study is to present a preliminary analysis of Terenas phonological system. An indigenous language spoken in Brazil at the village of Cachoeirinha in the southwestern of Mato Grosso do Sul and classified as belonging to the Arawakan linguistic stock. Our goal is to analyse and describe the phonemic inventory, the syllabic structure and the stress pattern of this language. Linguistic phonological models such as the structuralist phonemic model proposed by Pike (1947) as well as non-linear phonological ones (autossegmental, prosodic and metrical) will be used to analyse the data. This study is composed of four parts. Chapter one presents a classification of Arawakan languages in Brazil. Chapter two describes its segmental level (distinctive features and allophones). Chapter three the syllabic structure and chapter four its stress pattern. Finally, we present a study about words borrowed from Portuguese in Terena (Appendix I).

Submitted by Geyciane Santos (geyciane_thamires@hotmail.com) on 2015-05-29T15:53:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao- Rosilene Campos Magalhães Gomes.pdf: 3003278 bytes, checksum: a800881a64c76c94132942aae0dfe0b5 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-05-29T17:57:23Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao- Rosilene Campos Magalhães Gomes.pdf: 3003278 bytes, checksum: a800881a64c76c94132942aae0dfe0b5 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-05-29T18:06:57Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao- Rosilene Campos Magalhães Gomes.pdf: 3003278 bytes, checksum: a800881a64c76c94132942aae0dfe0b5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-29T18:06:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao- Rosilene Campos Magalhães Gomes.pdf: 3003278 bytes, checksum: a800881a64c76c94132942aae0dfe0b5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-12-12 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This dissertation analyzes on the territorialization of indigenous languages in the region of São Gabriel da Cachoeira – AM, once the region has pioneered in the municipality at the co-oficilização of indigenous languages Tukano, Baniwa and Nheengatu in Brazil in 2002, followed by other region that formalize not only indigenous languages as well as migration languages. The municipality is consists of 23 crowd from five language families Eastern Tukano Aruak Yanomami Japurá-Uaupes (Maku) and Tupi (Nheengatu spoken by people Baré, Werekena, and part of the people Baniwa of lower river Içana) that are speakers between 20 at the 23 indigenous languages. The conceptual basis of the research is focused on categories as Territory, Indigenous Language and Culture, Sociolinguistics, Geography and Linguistics. We used the methodological procedures of participatory research with raising basic primary and secondary sources. In this context, the research searched understand the territorialization of indigenous languages at the urban areas of the municipality, by way the identification of the places where languages are used, analyzing its territorialisation in urban place and checking what mechanisms used by people, public sector and civil society organizations for recovery and maintenance and reproduction of the languages, since the language for the indigenous peoples of the High Rio Negro is one of the strongest elements of your culture. To permeate, revitalize and sustain the maintenance of indigenous languages in the municipality is need, fundamentally, to put into practice the law of co-official languages of the indigenous existing in this municipality, recover the prestige at the status of these languages, so that the youngest speakers, public and private to can use them daily, as well as in schools, so to reverse the phenomena of language replacement and linguistics loss that these such indigenous languages come having. / Esta pesquisa analisa a territorialização das línguas indígenas na sede do Município de São Gabriel da Cachoeira – AM, uma vez que foi o município pioneiro na co-oficializaçao das línguas indígenas Tukano, Baniwa e Nheengatu no Brasil em 2002, seguido por outros municípios que oficializaram não só línguas indígenas, mas também línguas de migração. O município é constituído por 23 povos indígenas pertencentes a cinco famílias linguísticas Tukano Oriental, Aruak, Yanomami, Japurá-Uaupés (Maku) e Tupi (Nheengatu falado pelos povos Baré, Werekena e parte dos Baniwa do baixo rio Içana), falantes entre 20 a 23 línguas indígenas. A base conceitual da pesquisa está centrada nas categorias de Território, Língua e Cultura Indígena, Sociolinguística, Geografia e a Linguística. Tendo sido utilizado ainda, de procedimentos metodológicos da pesquisa participante e levantamento de fontes primárias e secundárias. Neste contexto, a pesquisa visou compreender a territorialização das línguas indígenas na sede de São Gabriel da Cachoeira, por meio da identificação dos lugares de uso das línguas, analisando a territorialização das mesmas no meio urbano e verificando quais os mecanismos usados pelos povos, setor público e sociedade civil organizada para valorização e manutenção e reprodução das línguas, uma vez que, a língua para os povos indígenas do Alto Rio Negro, é um dos elementos mais fortes de sua cultura. Para permear, revitalizar e sustentar a manutenção das línguas indígenas no município é preciso, fundamentalmente, colocar em prática a lei de co-oficialização das línguas indígenas existentes neste município, recuperar o prestígio e o status dessas línguas, de modo que, os falantes mais jovens, órgãos públicos e privados possam utilizá-las diariamente, assim como, nas escolas, para que se revertam os fenômenos de substituição e perda linguísticas que tais línguas indígenas vêm sofrendo.

O objetivo desta tese é apresentar uma análise para a modificação de grau em Karitiana. Karitiana é uma língua da tronco Tupi, família Arikém, falada por aproximadamente 320 pessoas em uma área demarcada no noroeste do Brasil (Storto e Vander Velden 2005). A tese está dividida em quatro capítulos. O primeiro capítulo é sobre o contexto teórico e sobre algumas características da língua. O conexto teórico é relativo à Semântica Formal. Apresentamos uma introdução sobre esse paradigma teórico e sobre as ferramentas utilizadas para a composição semântica (Heim e Kratzer 1998). A parte sobre o Karitiana apresenta algumas características da língua, como o modo, o tempo, o aspecto e os sintagmas nominais (Storto 1999 e Müller et al. 2006). O segundo capítulo é sobre a metodologia utilizada para a realização dos trabalhos de campo. Discutimos a importância da elicitação controlada de dados para uma pesquisa em Linguística Formal (Matthewson 2004). Discutimos também algumas questões práticas a respeito dos trabalho de campo, como a negociação com os membros da comunidade que fala a língua, assim como os princípios éticos aplicados à pesquisa linguística (Rice 2012). O terceiro capítulo é a respeito dos sintagmas verbais em Karitiana. Primeiramente, fazemos uma discussão sobre a teoria do aspecto lexical (Aktionsart) (Vendler 1957, Verkuyl 1996, Krifka 1998 e Rothstein 2004). Em seguida, apresentamos uma análise sobre a telicidade, a cumulatividade, e a atomicidade dos predicados verbais em Karitiana. Aplicamos os testes clássicos da literatura linguística sobre a telicidade, como o paradoxo do imperfectivo e as expressões com por/em uma hora. Fazemos também uma análise sobre a cumulatividade e a atomicidade em Karitiana. Os resultados obtidos são os seguintes: (i) alguns testes devem ser adaptados para serem aplicados em Karitiana (considerando-se as propriedades de tempo, aspecto e dos sintagmas nominais na língua); (ii) há uma diferença entre predicados télicos e atélicos em Karitiana; (iii) os predicados verbais eventivos são cumulativos e contáveis na língua. O quarto capítulo é sobre a modificação de grau em Karitiana realizada pelo advérbio pita(t) \'verdadeiro/muito/completamente/mesmo\'. Pita(t) pode aparecer nos domínios nominal, adjetival e verbal. Sua interpretação depende do tipo de escala associada ao predicado modificado. Quando pita(t) modifica sintagmas nominais, ele pode ser traduzido por \'verdadeiro\'. Quando pita(t) modifica os sintagmas adjetivais, ele é interpretado como \'muito\', se o adjetivos for de escala aberta, e \'completamente\' se for de escala fechada. No domínio verbal, pita(t) tem uma restrição de distribuição, ele pode aparecer somente com sintagmas com predicados atélicos com uma interpretação de grau, e tem uma interpretação equivalente à do muito do português. Por outro lado, quando se usa pita(t) com predicados télicos (accomplishments e achievements), a interpretação é algo como \'mesmo\'. Para analisar essas características atípicas de pita(t), utilizamos o pano de fundo teórico da Semântica Escalar (Kennedy e McNally 2005, Kennedy 2007). Uma vez que os predicados nominais e verbais não possuem uma escala lexical como os adjetivos graduáveis, propomos uma função de grau Deg que é responsável por fornecer um argumento de grau e uma escala à denotação de nomes e verbos. A escala associada aos predicados nominais é uma escala fechada de precisão e a escala associada aos sintagmas verbais é uma variável, preenchida de acordo com o tipo do verbo. Os predicados atélicos são considerados como predicados que são associados a uma escala aberta e indeterminada, enquanto que os predicados télicos são predicados associados a escalas fechadas e determinadas. Na análise, propomos que pita(t) é um modificador de grau que manipula o grau associado ao ponto de corte da escala representado pelo grau ds em Kennedy (2007), que é o grau normal quando a escala é aberta e o grau máximo quando a escala é fechada. A tese defendida apoia que se considere o ponto de corte de uma escala como um grau disponível para modificação e para que se considere a indeterminação como um traço importante para a tipologia dos predicados graduáveis. / The aim of this dissertation is to present an anaysis of degree modification in Karitiana. Karitiana is a language of the Tupi family, Arikém branch, spoken by about 320 people on a demarcated area in the northwest of Brazil (Storto and Vander Velden 2005). This dissertation is divided in four chapters. The first chapter is about the theoretical framework and about the basic properties of Karitiana grammar. The theoretical framework of this work is Formal Semantics. We present an introduction to this theoretical paradigm and to the tools used for semantic composition (Heim and Kratzer 1998). The part on Karitiana presents some of the basic characteristics of the language, like mood, tense, aspect, and the denotation of nominal phrases (Storto 1999, Müller et al. 2006). The second chapter presents the methodology used in fieldwork. We discuss the importance of controled elicitation as a fieldwork methodology within a research in Formal Linguistics (Matthewson 2004). We also discuss some pratical issues of fieldwork, like the negociation with the comunity members and some ethical principles associated to a research in Linguistics (Rice 2012). The third chapter is on the verbal phrases of Karitiana. First, we discuss the theories on lexical aspect (Aktionsart) (Vendler 1957, Verkuyl 1996, Krifka 1998 and Rothstein 2004). Then we present an analysis of telicity, cumulativity and atomicity of verbal phrases in Karitiana. We apply the classical tests found in the linguistic literature about telicity, like the imperfective paradox and expressions like for/in one hour. We also analyze cumulaticity and atomicity in Karitiana. The theses defended at the chapter are the following: (i) some of tests had to be adapted to be applied in Karitiana (considering the properties of tense, aspect and nominal phrases in the language); (ii) there is a difference between telic and atelic predicates in Karitiana; (iii) eventive verbal predicates are both cumulative and countable in the language. The fourth chapter in on degree modification in Karitiana as performed by the adverb pita(t) \'true/very/completely/a lot/indeed\'. Pita(t) can appear in the nominal, adjectival, and v verbal domains. Its interpretation depends on the type of scale associated to the modified predicate. When pita(t) modifies Noun Phrases, it is interpreted as \'true\'. They can be associated with a closed scale of precision. When pita(t) modifies Adjectival Phrases, it is interpreted as \'very\' if the adjective has an open scale, and as \'completely\' if the adjective has a closed scale. On the verbal domain, pita(t) has a restriction on its distribution. It can appear only with atelic predicates with a degree interpretation. On the other hand, when we use pita(t) with telic predicates (accomplishments and achievements), the interpretation is something like \'indeed\'. To analyze these atypical characteristics of pita(t), we assume a theoretical background based on a Scalar Semantics (Kennedy and McNally 2005, Kennedy 2007). Since nominal and verbal predicates don\'t have a lexical scale like the gradable adjectives we propose a Deg function that is responsible to provide a degree argument and a a scale to the denotation of nouns and verbs. The scale associated to nominal predicates is a closed scale of precision and the scale associated to Verb Phrases is a variable, filled according to the type of the verb. Atelic predicates are considered predicates that are associated to open and indetermined scales whereas telic predicates are associated to closed and determined scales. The analysis we propose is that pita(t) is a degree modifier that manipulates the degree associated with the cutoff point of the scale represented by the degree ds in Kennedy (2007). That cutoff point is the standard degree when the scale is open and the maximal degree when the scale is closed. The thesis defended gives support for considering the cotoff point of a scale as an available degree for modification and for considering indeterminacy as an importanr feature of the typology of gradable predicates.

Thesis ( M. A. (Translation Studies and Linguistics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / The study explored the restandardization of Sepedi with the aspiration of including Khelobedu dialectical lexicons in the standard form. The standardization of Sepedi, unlike the case of Shona, excluded many of its dialects from the process, thus, left Khelobedu speakers outside of this medium and later subjected them to learn it in schools, putting them at a point of disadvantage academically. Very few studies have been conducted around this term restandardization. This study is mixed method in approach and sequential in design. Data is collected via self-administered questionnaires and face-to-face interviews using an interview guide. A total of 20 participants from four villages in the Mopani District made up a sample for the quantitative data collection phase, while four participants who are Language practitioners by profession made up the qualitative phase of the study. The findings of the study reveal that dialect speakers do not have much confidence in their dialectical variety. They still believe that English and Sepedi are mediums of development and progress. Although restandardization according to the language practitioners is said to possible, PanSALB still has a lot to do in terms of developing Indigenous Languages in South Africa.

The analysis of language contact phenomena, as with many types of linguistic analysis, starts from the similarity and difference of linguistic systems. This dissertation will examine the consequences of linguistic similarity and the social construction of difference in the ‘Lowland Mayan linguistic area’, a region spanning parts of Guatemala, Southern Mexico, Belize and Honduras, in which related languages, all belonging to the Mayan language family, have been in intensive contact with each other over at least the past two millennia. The linguistic outcomes of this contact are described in detail in the dissertation. They include contact-induced changes in the phonology, morphology, and syntax of the languages involved of a type and degree that seems to contravene otherwise robust cross-linguistic tendencies. I propose that these cross-linguistically unusual outcomes of language contact in the Maya Lowlands result, in part, from an awareness of the inherited similarities between these languages, and in part from the role that linguistic features, but not languages as whole systems, appear to have played in the formation of community or other identities. This dissertation investigates two complementary questions about language contact phenomena that can be ideally explored through the study of languages with a high level of inherited similarity in contact with one another. The first is how historically specific, dynamic strategies and processes of constructing and asserting group identity and difference, as well as the role that language plays in these, can condition the outcomes of language contact. The second is more language internal: what role does (formal, structural) inherited similarity play in conditioning the outcome of language contact between related languages? These two questions are connected in the following hypothesis: that inherited linguistic similarity can itself be an important resource in the construction of identity and difference in particular social settings, and that the awareness of similarity between languages (mediated, as it is, by these processes of identity construction) facilitates contact-induced changes that are unlikely, or even unavailable without that perception of sameness. This proposal carries with it a call for more research on contact between related languages as related languages, and not as utterly separate systems. / text

Indigenous worldviews are essential to successful language education, yet it remains a challenge to integrate them into current frameworks dominated by Western paradigms and pedagogies. This research addresses one aspect of the maintenance of cultural integrity for Indigenous languages as they are taught in a contemporary context. The purpose of this research is twofold: to explore the connections between Indigenous languages and the land, and to see how these connections are reflected in current language education practices. In particular, the study looks at the use of websites for Indigenous language education, with the goal of better understanding the potential for such placeless, global media to represent the inherently place-based nature of Indigenous languages. The study is based on an Indigenist research paradigm and employs the qualitative principles of Constructivist Grounded Theory. It incorporates a synthesis of current literature regarding connections between language and land, personal interviews with Indigenous language and culture experts, and a survey of 14 language education websites from Canada and the United States. Essential ties between land and language are revealed in the words of Indigenous and other writers, and in the thoughts and practices of Indigenous thinkers actively engaged with both land and language. These ties represent an intimate relationship to land that weaves together Indigenous knowledge, spirituality, history and identity. This study contributes to our understanding of the significance of land for Indigenous languages, and the importance of Indigenous worldviews for Indigenous education. / Graduate

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The study endeavoured to establish what had been done after 1994, by looking at the literature that reported the activities and documents that were produced. This was done against the background of what language policy and planning stand for. How these are conducted and how they influence the language ecology, was also central to our discussions. The analysis of what took place on the ground revealed that all the promising activities that were engaged in immediately post-apartheid were not sustained and did not produce the much anticipated outcomes. Much evidence for the dismal failure can be attributed to lack of accountability on the part of the powers that be. Recommendations are offered, emphasising, among others, an understanding of the importance of languages to their speakers. It is also important to understand the effects of colonisation and apartheid on the dehumanisation of the South African indigenous languages and how this has also influenced the current generation. We also need to demystify the myth that a language that is foreign to the majority of the population can serve as a unifying element and the idea that foreign and colonial languages can help us access education, employment, economy and law. These are some of the things we are advised to heed in our attempt to improve the situation of these languages. An ideal situation has been alluded to for the stakeholders to follow in the steps of those engaged in the Modernity/Coloniality-Decoloniality Collective Project. It follows two closely related directions: one analytic and the other programmatic. The analytic seeks “to excavate the dark side of domination, where racialization on inter-subjective social relations, and the control of knowledge, labor, land, and nature are revealed as operations of power” over the oppressed people (Veronelli, 2015). This goes hand in hand with the programme which is articulated around the notion of decoloniality, intended “to decolonize all areas of the colonial matrix of power to release the fullness of human relations” (Mignolo 2013, quoted in Veronelli, 2015). / African Languages / M.A. (African Languages)