Résumé de la thèse:Le syndrome néphrotique idiopathique (SNI) est la forme la plus fréquente de néphropathies glomérulaires et résulte d'altérations touchant les podocytes. La progression de la maladie est associée à une déplétion podocytaire et l'apparition de glomérulosclérose. Malgré de nombreuses études moléculaires et des avancées scientifiques indiscutables sur les formes génétiques, la pathogénie du SNI reste une énigme.Nous avons trouvé que la protéine c-mip est spécifiquement induite dans les podocytes des patients atteints de SNI.Nous avons montré que les souris transgéniques c-mip développent une protéinurie néphrotique qui n'est associée ni à des lésions inflammatoires glomérulaires ou interstitielles, ni à des dépôts de complexes immuns circulants ou de complément. Les études in vitro et in vivo ont démontré que c-mip se lie à Fyn et bloque la liaison de Fyn avec la néphrine et N WASP. Il en résulte une inhibition de la voie de signalisation de la néphrine et l'incapacité de N-WASP à recruter Nck, ce qui altère l'organisation du cytosquelette podocytaire et contribue au développement de la protéinurie masssive.D'autre part, nous avons montré que Wt1 se lie au promoteur de c-mip et bloque sa transactivation. Au cours du SNI acquis, les résultats obtenus in vitro et dans les souris transgéniques suggèrent que c-mip inhibe la transcription du gène de Wt1 médiée par NF-κB, interagit avec Wt1 via son domaine LRR et favorise la dégradation de Wt1 par le protéasome.Nous avons également trouvé que c-mip interfère avec l'activation de la voie NF-κB en destabilisant la sous-unité RelA, tandis que la sous-unité p50 est préservée. Les résultats in vitro et dans le modèle murin suggèrent que c-mip est dotée de propriétés pro-apoptotiques.Ces travaux montrent que la protéine c-mip joue un rôle crucial dans la physiopathologie du SNI et constitue une cible thérapeutique de choix. / SummaryPodocyte damages are the initiating event in the pathogenesis of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS). Progression of podocyte disease is associated with cellular depletion and appearance of glomerulosclerosis. The molecular pathophysiology of this disease remains an enigma.We showed that c-mip (c-maf inducing protein) is up-regulated in podocytes during the active phase of INS.We generated c-mip transgenic mice overexpressing c-mip specifically in podocytes. These mice developed morphological and biochemical alterations similar to INS. We demonstrated that c-mip switches off podocyte proximal signaling by preventing the interaction between Fyn and nephrin, resulting in the inhibition of nephrin phosphorylation in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we found that the in vivo interactions of Fyn with Nck and N WASP are inhibited, which may account for disorganization of the cytoskeleton and the effacement of foot processes.We showed that, under physiological conditions, Wt1 inhibits the transcriptional induction of c-mip. Conversely, we demonstrated that, under pathological conditions, c-mip inhibits NF κB mediated-Wt-1 transcription, interacts in vitro and in vivo with Wt1 via its LRR domain, and targets Wt1 to proteasome degradation.We also observed that the induction of c-mip in patients with INS is correlated with a downregulation of RelA in podocytes. We showed that c-mip alters NF-κB signaling by destabilizing the RelA protein, while p50 is preserved. Morever, the results established in stably transfected podocytes and in transgenic mice suggest that c-mip is a proapoptotic protein.Collectively, these data postulate that c-mip functions as a negative regulator and plays a central role in podocytes disorders during INS.

La régulation transcriptionnelle des eucaryotes supérieurs est un processus hautement contrôlé du point de vue spatial et temporel lors du développement, ou en réaction à l’environnement. La transcription ciblée des gènes codant requiert l’assemblage d’un complexe de pré-initiation (PIC) aux promoteurs comprenant l’ARN Polymérase (Pol) II et les facteurs généraux de transcription (GTFs) et dépend de la médiation d’un signal par les facteurs activateurs de transcription (TFs). Les années récentes ont montré que la transition de l’initiation vers l’élongation productive de la transcription représente une étape clé de la régulation de l’expression des gènes. Ce processus est également contrôlé par la structure de la chromatine, les modifications d’histones et par la présence d’éléments cis-régulateurs tels que les ‘enhancers’ ou les ‘silencers’. Au cours de ma thèse, nous avons entrepris de décrypter les mécanismes de régulation transcriptionnelle impliqués dans les étapes du développement lymphocytaire. Nous avons essentiellement travaillé sur des thymocytes primaires murins isolés au stade de différenciation double positif (DP, CD4+/CD8+) pour lequel de nombreuses séquences de type ‘enhancers’ ont été caractérisées dans la littérature scientifique. Nous avons également utilisé des lymphocytes B humains (Raji) immortalisés pour certaines des expériences impliquant des manipulation génétiques complexes permettant l’étude de mutants du domaine carboxy-terminal (CTD) de Pol II. En couplant des approches d’analyse à l’échelle du génome au séquençage à haut-débit, nous avons établi des cartographies fines de la localisation de Pol II, des GTFs, des TFs,de modifications d’histones (ChIP-Seq) et de nucléosomes (MNase-seq) ainsi que la caractérisation de populations variées d’ARN par RNA-seq. Nos principaux résultats ont révélé (i) l’assemblage du PIC et la transcription des enhancers tissus-spécifiques, (ii) l’existence de plateforme d’initiation de la transcription (TIPs) aux enhancers et aux promoteurs tissus-spécifique, (ii) que le contenu en GC représente l’un des principaux éléments promoteurs mammifères en permettant une ouverture transcription-indépendante de la chromatine, (iv) l’importance d’une nouvelle modification post-traductionnelle du domaine CTD de Pol II pour la progression de l’enzyme en élongation et finalement (v) que la modification de l’histone H3 sur le résidu K36 methylé corrèle avec l’épissage des transcrits Pol II. Globalement, les résultats les plus important de ce manuscrit consistent dans la mise en évidence de la transcription des enhancers comme caractérisant l’expression des gènes tissus-spécifiques et dans l’importance des ilots CpG comme éléments promoteurs mammifères permettant la formation d’une structure ouverte de la chromatine. / Transcriptional regulation in higher eukaryotes resembles a tightly controlled temporal and spatial process, as exemplified during development or an organism’s response to environmental stimuli. Directed transcription requires the assembly of the preinitiation complex (PIC) at the promoter of protein-coding genes, including RNA Polymerase (Pol) II and the general transcription factors (GTFs), mediated by activating transcription factors (TFs). Several rate-limiting steps further control the progression of Pol II initiation to productive elongation of the gene. This process is further controlled by chromatin structure, histone modifications as well as cis-regulatory elements, such as enhancers or silencers. We set out to decipher some of these regulatory mechanisms during the tightly controlled process of lymphocyte development. Our work primarily made use of primary mouse thymocytes in CD4+/CD8+ double positive (DP, CD4+/CD8+) stage during T-cell development. To our advantage, many developmentally important cis-regulatory regions are well characterized in this cell population. For genetic manipulations, we made use of the Raji B-cell lymphoma cell-line. Using high throughput genome-wide approaches based on next generation sequencing (NGS), we performed both localization studies of Pol II, GTFs, TFs, histone modifying enzymes, histone modifications and nucleosomes as well as deep-sequencing of different RNA transcript populations. In summary, we find that (i) PICs assemble at tissue-specific enhancers leading to local transcription, (ii) large transcription initiation platforms (TIPs) at tissue-specific promoters and enhancers exist, which correlate with high CG-content of the DNA and transcription factor binding sites (TFBS), (iii) GC-content regulates the nucleosomal structure and initiation, including directionality, at promoters, (iv) Pol II is phosphorylated at a new residue of it C-terminal domain (CTD) in the 3’ regions of genes and (v) splicing events can influence the chromatin structure. Altogether, these results show that PIC formation at and transcription of enhancers are important for the regulation of T-cell target genes, that CpG islands represent important if not the major regulatory promoter element in mammals guiding tissue-specific gene expression and nucleosome structure, as well as novel mechanisms of Pol II elongation and the effect on chromatin structure.

Triptofano (TRP) é metabolizado por duas vias, a via serotonérgica e a via das quinureninas. Na via serotonérgica, TRP é metabolizado a serotonina (5-HT) e, em algumas células, à melatonina (MLT) que pode ser oxidada à N1-acetil-N2-formil-5- metoxiquinuramina (AFMK) e N1-acetil-5-metoxiquinuramina (AMK) por ação de peroxidases. Na via das quinureninas o TRP é diretamente metabolizado à N formilquinurenina (NFK) e em seguida a quinurenina (QUIN). A enzima indolamina 2, 3 dioxigenase (IDO) é uma das responsáveis por esta reação. Dada a importância da IDO na tolerância imunológica e pelo fato desta enzima ser induzível nos propusemos a avaliar a existência de uma regulação cruzada entre esta enzima e a via serotonérgica. Avaliando a interferência de AMK sobre a ação de IDO e a interferência de QUIN sobre a formação de AFMK por peroxidases, observamos uma possível interação entre as vias. AMK é um inibidor competitivo clássico de IDO e o Ki encontrado foi de 0,98 mM. QUIN é um inibidor acompetitivo linear simples da formação de AFMK e o Ki encontrado foi de 0,1 mM. A inibição da formação de AFMK também ocorre para a peroxidase humana (mieloperoxidase, MPO). Além de representarem uma regulação cruzada utilizada in vivo, as inibições encontradas podem ser relevantes para a proposta de novos inibidores de IDO e MPO na terapia imunomodulatória. Dado o nosso interesse pelas enzimas IDO e MPO, avaliamos ainda a localização intracelular destas enzimas em células de peritônio de camundongo, tanto residente como ativada com concanavalina A (Con A). O estímulo com Con A representa uma ativação de linfócitos T mediado por interferon gama (IFN-γ) e foi usado como modelo experimental para avaliar condições de localização em células ativadas. Por imunocitoquímica verificamos que IDO e MPO localizam-se próxima à membrana plasmática sendo que uma leve dispersão apenas de MPO foi observada em células ativadas com Con A. A localização intracelular das duas enzimas é no citoplasma, vesículas e núcleo. Curiosamente, verificamos MPO em células isoladas e também em agrupamentos celulares de duas ou mais células. Por citometria de fluxo identificamos macrófagos, linfócitos B1 e agrupamentos celulares como células que contém MPO. A mobilização de MPO durante a ativação celular, a presença de MPO em linfócitos e a presença de MPO e IDO em núcleos são informações novas que sugerem novas atividades para estas enzimas. / Tryptophan (TRP) is metabolized by two mains pathways, the serotoninergic pathway and the kynurenine pathway. In the serotoninergic pathway, TRP is metabolized to serotonin (5-HT) and, in some cells, to melatonin (MLT). The later can even be oxidized to acetyl-N1-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AFMK) and N1-acetyl-5 -methoxykynuramine (AMK) by peroxidases. In the kynurenine pathway, TRP is metabolized to N-formylkynurenine (NFK) and to kynurenine (KYN). Indoleamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) is one of those responsible for this reaction. Since IDO is importat in immune tolerance and the fact that this enzyme is inducible by cytokines we proposed whether there is a cross regulation between this enzyme and the serotoninergic pathway. A possible interaction between MLT and TRP oxidation pathways was shown by the AMK influence on IDO activity and QUIN interference on AFMK formation by peroxidases. AMK was shown to be an IDO classical competitive inhibitor with a Ki of 0.98 mM. QUIN was a peroxidase (horseradish peroxidase, HRP) classical uncompetitive inhibitor and Ki was found to be 0,1 mM. AFMK formation inhibition was also found in human peroxidase (myeloperoxidase, MPO). Beyond the in vivo crosstalk, new IDO and MPO inhibitors in immunomodulatory therapy would be proposed by the compounds shown in this study. Given our interest in IDO and MPO, we also evaluated their intracellular localization in both resident and concanavalin A (Con A) activated mice peritoneum cells. Con A stimulation is a IFN-γ mediated T lymphocytes activation and was our experimental model to evaluate activated cells. In light microscopy we observed IDO and MPO localization near the membrane and MPO only had a dispersed localization in Con A activated cells. Cytoplasm, nucleus and vesicles were the intracellular localization of both enzymes. Interestingly, we found MPO in isolated cells and in cell clusters of two or more cells. MPO was founded on macrophages, B1 cells and cell clusters by flow cytometry. The MPO mobilization during cell activation, the presence of MPO in lymphocytes and the presence of MPO and IDO in nuclei are new informations to suggest new activities for these enzymes.

A abordagem imunoterapêutica do câncer tem sido cada vez mais explorada. Entre os fatores que a tornam atraente, mas também a limitam, está o uso de material antigênico do próprio paciente. Assim, pretendeu-se estabelecer condições de extração e amplificação de mRNA tumoral, como fonte renovável de antígenos. Pretendeu-se avaliar também a eficácia da vacina, com o uso de monócitos transfectados com RNA tumoral total para mimetismo das células tumorais. Diferentes concentrações (0,1 mg a 10 mg) de RNA total de SK-BR-3 e diferentes tempos (12, 24 e 48 h) foram usados para transfecção. Na avaliação do potencial linfo-estimulador dos monócitos foi usado o ensaio de proliferação linfocitária e a secreção de citocinas durante a co-cultura. Como resultado viu-se que monócitos transfectados se tornaram mais ativados e foram capazes de induzir linfoproliferação. Esses resultados indicaram ser possível o desenvolvimento de um método para avaliação das respostas celulares induzidas contra células tumorais em pacientes com câncer que foram vacinados. / The cancer immunotherapeutic approach has been increasingly exploited. Among the factors that make it attractive, but also limited, is the use of patient antigenic material. Thus, we propose to establish conditions for extraction and amplification of mRNA tumor, as renewable source of antigens. It is also intended to assess the vaccine effectiveness, using monocytes transfection with total tumor RNA for mimicry the tumor cells. Different concentrations (0.1 to 10 mg) of SK-BR-3 total RNA and different times (12, 24 and 48 h) were used in transfection. To assess the lympho-stimulator potential of transfected monocytes was used the test of lymphocyte proliferation, and cytokines secretion during co-culture. The result was that transfected monocytes became more activated and were able to induce lymphoproliferation. These results indicated that the development of a method for evaluating cellular responses induced against tumor cells in cancer patients who were vaccinated is possible.

Les anticorps monoclonaux représentent aujourd’hui un outil de choix en thérapeutique et en diagnostic. Les anticorps thérapeutiques sont des biomédicaments en plein essor depuis les années 1970 et représentent 10% du marché des produits pharmaceutiques. Les anticorps monoclonaux sont utilisés dans divers domaines : en cancérologie, pour lutter contre les maladies auto-immunes ou en infectiologie. Le nombre des anticorps monoclonaux en développement ne cesse d’augmenter. Les premiers anticorps monoclonaux utilisés en thérapie étaient d’origine murine et leur administration à l’Homme est susceptible de déclencher des effets secondaires. De nouveaux anticorps visant à limiter voir faire disparaitre ces effets indésirables tels que d’abord les anticorps chimériques, puis les anticorps humanisés et enfin les anticorps totalement humains ont été développés. 9 anticorps totalement humains sont actuellement sur le marché et d’autres sont en cours de développement. Le phage display, les souris transgéniques et l’utilisation de lymphocytes B humains sont les trois stratégies mises en œuvre pour produire des anticorps totalement humains. L’utilisation des lymphocytes B humains, peu étudiée à cause d’un faible rendement et de problèmes de stabilité, a connu ces dernières années un regain d’intérêt grâce à l’immortalisation virale par le virus Epstein-Barr et à la découverte de myélomes humains. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de mon projet de thèse a été la production d’anticorps monoclonaux humains à partir de lymphocytes B humains. Pour ce faire, deux approches basées sur l’immortalisation virale par le virus Epstein-Barr couplée ou non à une immortalisation cellulaire par des myélomes ont été mises en œuvre. La première approche utilise des lymphocytes B mémoires isolés de sang périphérique de donneurs infectés ou vaccinés. L’entérotoxine B de Staphylococcus aureus (SEB) a été utilisée comme modèle.La deuxième approche implique une immunisation in vitro de lymphocytes B naïfs extraits de sang périphérique. Cette stratégie pourrait permettre la production d’anticorps humains contre des antigènes pour lesquels il n’existe pas de donneurs infectés ou vaccinés. Deux modèles, le peptide N-terminal de la neurotoxine A de Clostridium Botulinium A (BoNT/A) et la protéine de fusion ZZTat101, comportant le domaine ZZ de Staphylococcus aureus lié covalemment à la protéine transactivatrice Tat du virus de l’immunodéficience humaine VIH-1, ont été employés. Nous avons réussi à obtenir des IgMs dirigés contre la neurotoxine Clostridium Botulinium A, ainsi que des IgMs (et peut-être des IgGs) dirigés contre la protéine Tat. L’immortalisation par Epstein-Barr, nous a permis d’isoler 7 lignées de lymphocytes immortalisés sécrétant des anticorps IgMs anti-TBA-Nter humains. L’immunisation in vitro produisant essentiellement des IgMs, la possible production d’IgGs après stimulation par la protéine ZZTat101 se révèle un résultat très intéressant. Nous avons montré que la production d’anticorps par ZZTat101 impliquait les 7 cystéines, la région 22-57 et la liaison aux héparanes sulfates de Tat. / The number of monoclonal antibodies used as drug or under clinical investigation increases rapidly. The first murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) used in therapy induces human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMAs) when administered to patients. Such HAMAs hamper the therapeutic efficacy of mAbs and induce side effects. To limit these effects, new antibodies were developed during the, last 30 years. Chimeric, humanized and fully human antibodies were engineered. The use of human monoclonal antibodies (hAbs) appears ideal to solve the problem of HAMAs. Nowadays 9 fully human antibodies are available and others are evaluated in clinical trials or currently investigated in research labs. Three methods exist to produce fully human antibodies: the phage display, the transgenic mice and the use of human B lymphocytes. The majority of fully human antibodies resulted from the phage display and the transgenic mice methods. The use of human B lymphocytes is less investigated due to a poor yield and stability problems. These last years, the immortalization process, thanks to the involvement of the Epstein-Barr virus and human myeloma, induced a rise of interest for human B lymphocytes. In this context we decided to develop fully human monoclonal antibodies using human B lymphocytes through immortalization using the Epstein-Barr virus followed or not by an immortalization with a human/mouse heteromyeloma HM. The first approach is based on hAbs production from peripheral blood memory B lymphocytes isolated from infected or vaccinated donors. The Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxine B (SEB) was used as a model. Memory B lymphocytes were purified and cultured in the presence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The transformation of memory B lymphocytes by EBV allowed the generation of immortalized B lymphocytes lines producing IgGs antibodies directed against SEB. We succeeded in isolating 6 EBV-immortalized memory B lymphocytes lines secreting anti-SEB IgGs antibodies. After many attempts to immortalize EBV immortalized memory B lymphocytes lines secreting anti-SEB antibodies with myeloma, the fusion of a EBV immortalized memory B lymphocytes with the human/mouse heteromyeloma HM led to an hybridoma. Unfortunately this hybridoma has rapidly lost its capacity to secrete d’IgGs anti-SEB. In the second approach the hAbs production implies the in vitro immunization of peripheral blood naïve lymphocytes. This strategy could allow the hAbs production against antigens for which no infected or vaccinated donors may be available. The Clostridium Botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A), the most powerful toxin, and its N-terminal peptide (TBA-Nter) or the fusion protein ZZTat101 were used as models. ZZTat101 is a fusion between the ZZ domain of Staphylococcus aureus and the Tat protein of the human immunodeficiency virus HIV-1. Monocytes, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes were isolated from human PBMC depleted of Natural killer. These cells were tools to develop efficient in vitro immunization protocols. IgMs directed against TBA-Nter and also IgMs (and possibly IgGs) directed against Tat were obtained. The use of the Epstein-Barr virus induced 7 EBV immortalized lines secreting anti-TBA-Nter IgMs antibodies. Unfortunately, after fusion with the heteromyeloma HM no hybridoma was isolated against TBA-Nter and Tat. The ZZTat101 mechanism involved on humoral response was studied, showing that the 7 cysteines, the region 22-57 and the ability of Tat to bind heparane sulfate are necessary to trigger the humoral response.

Les lymphocytes T CD4+ auxiliaires ou T helper en anglais sont capables de soutenir une grande diversité de fonctions grâce à leur capacité à se différencier en différents sous-types effecteurs en fonction de l’antigène rencontré et de l’environnement cytokinique dans lequel ils se trouvent. Les connaissances actuelles sur la différenciation des cellules T helper mettent en avant l’existence de réseaux transcriptionnels particulièrement complexes et spécifiques à chaque sous-ensemble T helper. En 2008, les cellules T CD4 sécrétrices d’IL-9 (Th9) sont identifiées comme un nouveau sous-type de cellules T helper. Différenciées en présence d’IL-4 et TGF-β, les cellules Th9 sécrètent de l’IL-9 et de l’IL-21, et contribuent au développement de maladies auto-immunes et allergiques. Les lymphocytes Th9 présentent également des propriétés anti-tumorales particulièrement intéressantes.Le réseau transcriptionnel des cellules Th9 résulte d’un équilibre entre les voies de signalisation induites par les différentes cytokines nécessaires à sa polarisation. L’IL-4 permet l’activation de STAT6 et l’expression de GATA3 et IRF4, tandis que le TGF-β conduit à l’activation de la voie des Smad et l’expression du facteur PU.1. Le module transcriptionnel IRF4/BATF ainsi que le facteur PU.1 sont des messagers indispensables au développement des cellules Th9 et à la sécrétion d’IL-9.IRF8 est un facteur de transcription critique pour le développement des cellules myéloïdes et des lymphocytes B. Récemment, il est apparu qu’IRF8 était impliqué dans la polarisation de sous-ensembles T helper. En effet, IRF8 limite la sécrétion d’IL-17 par les cellules Th17, de même qu’il réprime l’expression de l’Il4 et l’Il17 dans les cellules Treg. Structurellement proche d’IRF4, IRF8 interagit avec des cofacteurs tels que PU.1 ou BATF afin de réguler l’activité transcriptionnelle.Ce travail présenté ici révèle que le facteur IRF8 participe à la polarisation des cellules Th9 in vitro et in vivo. Le TGF-β nécessaire à la différenciation des cellules Th9 régule directement l’expression d’Irf8 grâce à l’activation de Smad3. Comme dans d’autres types cellulaires, la fonction transcriptionnelle d’IRF8 est dépendante de ces partenaires d’interaction. Nous montrons qu’en présence des facteurs PU.1, IRF4 et BATF, IRF8 participe à un complexe multiprotéique nécessaire à l’induction des cytokines caractéristiques des cellules Th9, notamment l’Il9 et l’Il21. Nous démontrons également qu’en présence de la protéine ETV6, IRF8 est capable de former un complexe initiant la répression de l’activité transcriptionnelle de l’Il4. Nous soulignons ainsi le rôle bivalent joué par IRF8 dans le développement des cellules Th9 dépendamment de ses partenaires. Pour finir, l’expression d’Irf8 est nécessaire aux cellules Th9 pour exercer leurs fonctions anti-tumorales. / CD4 helper T cells support a wide range of functions due to their ability to differentiate into different effector subsets depending on the antigen encountered and the cytokine environment in which they are. Current knowledge on the differentiation of helper T cells highlights the existence of complex transcriptional networks specific to each T helper subset. In 2008, IL-9 secreting CD4 T cells (Th9) are identified as a new helper T cell subtype. Differentiated in the presence of IL-4 and TGF-β, Th9 cells secrete IL-9 and IL-21, and contribute to the development of autoimmune and allergic diseases. Th9 lymphocytes also exhibit strong anti-tumor properties.The transcriptional network of the Th9 cells results from a balance between the signaling pathways induced by the different cytokines required for its polarization. IL-4 allows activation of STAT6 and expression of GATA3 and IRF4, whereas TGF-β leads to activation of the Smad pathway and expression of the transcription factor PU.1. The IRF4 / BATF transcriptional module and the PU.1 factor are essential messengers for the development of Th9 cells and IL-9 secretion.IRF8 is a crucial transcription factor for the development of myeloid cells and B lymphocytes. Recently it appeared that IRF8 was involved in helper T subset polarization. Indeed, IRF8 limits the secretion of IL-17 by Th17 cells, as well as repressing the expression of Il4 and Il17 in Treg cells. Structurally close to IRF4, IRF8 interacts with cofactors such as PU.1 or BATF in order to regulate transcriptional activity.This work reveals that the IRF8 transcription factor contributes to the polarization of Th9 cells in vitro and in vivo. The TGF-β needed for Th9 cell differentiation activate Smad3 pathway which directly modulates the Irf8 expression. As in many cellular subtypes, the transcriptional function of IRF8 is dependent on these interaction partners. We show that in the presence of the transcription factors PU.1, IRF4 and BATF, IRF8 participates in a multiprotein complex essential for the induction of the Th9 cytokines, Il9 and Il21. We also demonstrate that in the presence of the ETV6 protein, IRF8 is able to form a complex responsible for the repression of Il4 expression. We underline the bivalent role played by IRF8 in the development of Th9 cells depending on its partners. Finally, expression of Irf8 is crucial for Th9 cells to exercise their antitumor functions.

Various recent studies have suggested that regular intake of some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have a preventative effect against several types of tumours including breast cancer. The term nanotechnology refers to technology in which one-billionth of a meter is used as a scale for chemical particle size. This work aims to study the effect of both ibuprofen and aspirin on DNA damage using peripheral blood lymphocytes from breast cancer patients and comparing the results with those from healthy females as a control using the Comet and micronucleus assays. Western blot analysis (WBA) was used to investigate the effect of these drugs on XRCC3 and p53 proteins, whereas QPCR was to evaluate this effect on p53, cox1 and cox2 genes. Two hundred fifty ng/ml of ibuprofen (NP and bulk) and 500 ng/ml of aspirin (NP and bulk) were used to treat the lymphocytes. Both aspirin and ibuprofen caused a reduction in DNA damage and micronucleus formation. Aspirin, both forms, showed a reduction in DNA damage in the Comet and micronucleus assays. Ibuprofen both forms, by contrast, showed a statistically significant reduction in micronucleus frequency in the micronucleus assay, while its preventative effect with the Comet assay was weak or insignificant. NPs of both agents were more effective than bulk sizes. Using the Comet repair assay, aspirin and ibuprofen nano form catalysed DNA repair to a greater extent than their bulk forms. Also, both sizes showed better repair with NSAIDs compared to samples repaired without NSAIDs. In WBA aspirin increased the expression of XRCC3 protein in healthy cells. However, both NSAIDs decreased that expression in cells from BC patients. Furthermore, aspirin increased p53 expression in BC patients lymphocytes. With the QPCR method, results of both aspirin forms increased the expression of the p53 gene in BC patient cells statistically significantly. Both drugs reduced cox1 expression in healthy volunteers and cancer patients lymphocytes. Moreover, cox2 reduction was only in lymphocytes from BC patients. The results of this work are consistent with the view that NSAIDs, particularly aspirin and ibuprofen, could have a promising role in cancer treatment including breast cancer.

Introdução: A doação de plaquetas por aférese é um método de coleta que vem aumentando em relevância. Sabe-se que esta técnica apresenta inúmeras vantagens em comparação à doação de sangue total. Observamos que há uma preocupação na qualidade dos hemocomponentes enviados ao paciente, no entanto, não se observam muitas pesquisas em busca do cuidado com o doador. Órgãos como o Food and Drug Administration (FDA) já publicaram normas mais restritivas em relação à doação de plaquetas por aférese, pois pesquisas apontaram uma diminuição de algumas células e proteínas do sistema imunológico em doadores de repetição. Objetivos: Analisar doadores de plaquetas de repetição quanto a parâmetros hematimétricos e quantificação de subpopulações linfocitárias comparando-os com um grupo controle composto por doadores de sangue total que não doam há no mínimo um ano ou doando pela primeira vez e, ainda avaliar se a frequência de doações, o tempo de procedimento e o número de plaquetas doadas influenciam na contagem de leucócitos totais e nas subpopulações de linfócitos. Metodologia: Foram analisados 88 indivíduos em um estudo caso-controle, sendo que o grupo controle (CO) incluído foi de doadores de sangue total que haviam doado pela primeira vez ou haviam doado sangue total há mais de um ano. Os casos (CA) incluídos foram os doadores de repetição de plaquetaférese (quatro ou mais doações no último ano). O pareamento foi feito por sexo e idade. As amostras de sangue periférico foram coletadas em tubos contendo EDTA e analisadas em até 6 horas por citometria de fluxo, através da utilização de anticorpos monoclonais anti-CD3, CD4, CD8, HLADR, CD19 e CD56. Resultados: Foram avaliados 44 pares de doadores (caso vs controle). Destes, 81,8% eram homens, a média de idade dos grupos foi de 46 ±13 anos nos casos e 47 ±11 nos controles. Comparando os dois grupos, observou-se diferença estatisticamente significativa (p<0,05) na média de quantificação de leucócitos absolutos CA= 6476,6/μL vs CO=7115,4/μL (p=0,017), na média de linfócitos absolutos CA= 1862,6/μL vs CO= 2239,2/μL (p=0,007) e nos marcadores: CD3+/CD8+ (absoluto) CA= 437/μL vs CO= 597/μL (p=0,01), CD3+/CD4+(%) CA= 47,3/μL vs CO= 42,77/μL (p=0,007). Conclusões: Neste estudo foi possível observar que há uma diminuição em algumas células linfoides dos doadores de repetição em relação aos doadores convencionais, no entanto essa diferença não tem relevância clínica, demonstrando que os intervalos de doações que estes doadores estão sendo submetidos é adequado. A contagem de plaquetas dos doadores de repetição se mantiveram no decorrer do ano, este dado nos auxilia para mantermos um banco de dados de doadores de repetição com uma quantificação de plaquetas adequada, podendo ser convocado sem risco de ser bloqueado por contagem inferior ao preconizado. / Introduction: The donation of platelets by apheresis as a collection method has lately grown in relevance. This technique presents several advantages when compared to total blood donation. We understand there is a concern about the quality of the hemocomponents that are administered to the patients; however, there are not many researches concerned with caring for the donor. Entities such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have published more restricting regulations regarding the donation of platelets by apheresis, since researches indicate a decrease in some cells and proteins present in the immunological systems of repeat donors. Objectives: To analyze repeat donors of platelets with regards to hematimetric parameters and quantification of lymphocyte sub-populations by comparing them with a control group consisting of total blood donors that have not donated blood for the past year at least or that are donating for the first time. Additionally, to evaluate if the frequency of donations, the duration of the procedure, and the donated platelet counts influence in the total leukocyte counts and in the sub-populations of lymphocytes. Methodology: We analyzed 88 individuals in a control case study. The control group (CG) consisted of total blood donors in their first donation or that had donated for the last time more than a year before. The cases (CA) included were the repeat donors by platelet apheresis (four or more donations in the past year). We matched the individuals by gender and age. Peripheral blood samples were collected in tubes containing EDTA and analyzed up until 6 hours later by flow cytometry, through monoclonal antibodies anti-CD3, CD4, CD8, HLADR, CD19, and CD56. Results: 44 pairs of donor were evaluated (case vs control). Among them, 81.8% were men, the average age of the groups was 46 (±13) years in the cases and 47 (±11) in the controls. When comparing the two groups, we observed a statistically significant difference (p<0,05) in the average of the quantification of absolute leukocytes CA= 6476.6/μL vs CG=7115.4/μL (p=0.017), in the average of absolute lymphocytes CA= 1862.6/μL vs CG= 2239.2/μL (p=0.007), and in the markers: CD3+/CD8+ (absolute) CA= 437/μL vs CG= 597/μL (p=0,01), CD3+/CD4+(%) CA= 47.3/μL vs CG= 42.77/μL (p=0.007). Conclusions: We were able to note in this study that there is a significant decrease in some lymphoid cells of repeat donors when compared to conventional donors. This difference, however, is not clinically relevant, which demonstrates that the donation intervals to which the donors are subject are appropriate. Platelet numbers of repeat donors remained the same throughout the year. This piece of data helps us keep a database of repeat donors with an adequate platelet number. These donors can be called for without risking of their being blocked in the screening for a number lower than the recommended.

Ces dernières années ont été marquées par une progression importante dans la connaissance de la physiologie des cellules B in vivo et de leur différenciation en plasmocytes, grâce aux modèles murins et à l'imagerie intravitale. La transposition à l'Homme des connaissances acquises chez la souris soulève cependant des difficultés, telles que le manque d'outils pour visualiser les évènements qui se déroulent dans les organes lymphoïdes humains. Dans l'optique d'apporter une réponse à cette problématique, nous avons développé au sein du laboratoire un modèle in vitro en deux étapes, permettant la différenciation des lymphocytes B naïfs humains en plasmocytes. Ce modèle est particulièrement adapté pour étudier l'induction, au cours de la différenciation terminale B, des voies de signalisation, des facteurs de transcription et des grands processus cellulaires tels que la prolifération ou la mort programmée. A l'aide de ce modèle, nous avons mené deux études relatives à la différenciation B dans le centre germinatif: (i) La caractérisation sur le plan phénotypique et fonctionnel des populations cellulaires générées in vitro. Par une approche transcriptomique, nous avons comparé le profil d'expression et identifié les gènes et fonctions biologiques spécifiques à chacune de ces populations différenciées. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur l'étude de l'expression et de l'activité de l'enzyme AID, notamment au travers de la mesure des fréquences des hypermutations somatiques à chaque stade de la différenciation. (ii) L'étude des mécanismes cellulaires (cycle cellulaire, apoptose), génétiques et épigénétiques menant à la transition des cellules du centre germinatif vers le stade de plasmablastes. Cette étude a permis de caractériser au plus près une population cellulaire fondatrice à l'origine des cellules différenciées. En outre, nous avons mis en évidence l'importance de la méthylation de l'ADN, en particulier la 5-hydroxyméthylation, dans le contrôle de la différenciation terminale B. / Within the past few years there has been a significant increase in the knowledge of B cell physiology in vivo and their differentiation into plasma cells through the implementation of murine models and intravital imaging. However, the transposition of this knowledge from mouse to man raises difficulties such as the lack of tools available to visualize the ongoing events in human lymphoid organs. In order to overcome this issue, we have developed in our laboratory, a two-step in vitro model allowing naive B cell differentiation into plasma cells. This model is particularly suitable for studying the induction of signaling pathways, transcription factors and major cellular processes such as proliferation or programmed cell death. Using this model, we conducted two studies on B cell differentiation in the germinal center: (i) phenotypic and functional characterization of cell populations generated in vitro. This study involved a transcriptomic approach which identified and compared the expression profile of specific genes and their biological functions within each of these differentiated populations. Specifically, we focused on the expression and activity of the AID enzyme through the measurement of somatic hypermutation frequency at each stage of differentiation. (ii) The study of cellular (cell cycle, apoptosis), genetic and epigenetic mechanisms leading to the transition of the germinal center B cells into plasmablasts. This study allowed us to characterize a founder cell population of the in vitro generated plasmablasts. In addition, we have highlighted the importance of DNA methylation, in particular 5- hydroxymethylation in controlling terminal B cell differentiation.

B and T lymphocytes are critical to the adaptive immune response against invading microorganisms. B and T cells develop in the bone marrow and thymus, respectively, and initiate a series of proliferative responses once they encounter their cognate antigen in the peripheral lymphoid organs. These developmental and functional processes are controlled by different networks of transcriptional regulators that repress and activate gene expression. Identifying proteins that activate or repress specific genes and integrating these proteins into their transcriptional networks is critical to understanding lymphocyte development and function. The study of B lymphopoiesis and CD4+ T cell functional responses has greatly increased our understanding of how transcriptional regulators and other proteins cooperate to specify cell fates and responses. While many of the key components of these protein networks have been defined, several factors have yet to be described. Chemically induced random mutagenesis is a powerful tool for identifying genes that have critical biological functions. Justy mutant mice were generated by injecting wild-type mice with of N-Ethyl-N-Nitrosourea (ENU), a mutagen, which generated a unique point mutation in the mouse Gon4-like (Gon4l) gene. This mutation was found to specifically blunt B cell development and impair the functional responses of CD4+ T cells. Given that the Gon4l protein contains domains implicated in transcriptional regulation and B lymphopoiesis and T cell responses are regulated transcriptionally, the aim of this project was to characterize T and B lymphocyte populations from Justy mice and provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the regulation of gene expression during these biological processes. The work presented in this dissertation demonstrates that the protein encoded by Gon4l is essential for B lymphopoiesis, likely through the repression of alternate lineage genes. This work also shows that in CD4+ T cells, decreased Gon4l protein expression results in reduced levels of proliferation in response to exogenous IL-2 or T cell receptor (TCR) engagement. Additionally, Justy mutant CD4+ T cells display a reduced ability to generate IFNγ-producing cells in response to Th1 polarization in vitro. Collectively, these defects correlate with elevated levels of genes known to specifically inhibit the above developmental and functional processes. Thus, this dissertation proposes that Gon4l acts as a transcriptional repressor within the protein networks controlling B lymphopoiesis and CD4+ T cell responses.