In 1939 a law was passed in Sweden which forbade employers to dismiss female employees because of marriage or pregnancy. In Germany a law had been introduced already in 1932, which gave employers the right to dismiss a woman when she married. It also gave women right to end their employment for the same reason. The political decisions behind these legal changes were in both cases the result of an extended debate on the right of employment of married women. This debate occurred in most industrialised European countries in the interwar period. The increasing participation of women on the labour market was by some groups interpreted as a cause of mass unemployment. Economic crisis contributed to a crisis of masculinity, which then led to attacks on the rights of married women to paid employment. In Sweden there was a state commission set up in 1936 with the task of investigating women’s employment. This commission, kvinnoarbetskommittén, managed to demonstrate that dismissing women would not lead to a lowering of the unemployment figures for men, a task they accomplished through detailed studies of several labour market areas. The report of the commission guided the decision of parliament, a decision taken when the economic depression had already turned to a boom period. The composition of the commission as well as its work was a consequence of the strong influence of the Swedish women’s movement. In Germany the rights of women to paid employment was limited already in 1923 as the result of the financial crisis of the state. During the depression the attacks on married women’s right to employment became a political tool, which could be used both in foreign and domestic policy. Dismissing married women employed as civil servants was aimed to quash the demands of unemployed men. A prime target in the foreign policy was to convince the victors of World War I that reparations exceeded the ability of the German nation, a nation which had been badly stricken by economic crisis and unemployment. With this argument a solution of the unemployment issue was given second priority.

According to the salutogenic theory put forth by Antonovsky, an individual’s sense of coherence (SOC) is central for maintaining health. The present study used data from middle-aged women being part of a longitudinal research program to investigate how SOC relates to health status (in terms of self-rated health and medicine consumption) and a set of lifestyle factors (physical exercise, alcohol consumption, nicotine consumption and dietary habits). Women with a strong SOC were hypothesized to exhibit better health profiles, consume less medication, and lead a healthier lifestyle than women with a weak SOC. The findings partly confirmed the hypotheses in showing that women with a strong SOC had better self-rated overall health, better psychological well-being, fewer self-reported diseases and lower medicine consumption. Contrary to the hypothesis, women with stronger SOC had more self-reported psychological and physical symptoms. Of the lifestyle factors, only dietary habits were significantly associated with SOC. The study shows that SOC is related to differences in health and medicine consumption in a homogeneous group of middle-aged women, while the association between SOC and lifestyle was found to be less prominent.

Cette thèse examine la façon dont on interprète la santé et le bien-être des travailleuses célibataires et sans enfant au sein de deux types de récits : ceux provenant d’études publiées dans des périodiques (récits scientifiques) et ceux provenant d’entrevues qualitatives avec des membres de ce groupe (récits profanes). Sur le plan démographique, leur nombre est significatif; elles représentent 28% des employées canadiennes. Par contre, leur santé/bien-être est peu visible dans les écrits de recherche. Dans les sciences sociales, plusieurs études portent sur l’expérience parfois éprouvante d’être un adulte célibataire vivant dans une culture orientée sur le couple et la famille. Elles mettent l’accent sur le stigma associé à ce statut. Certains suggèrent même que les pratiques de recherche peuvent contribuer à la perpétuation de représentations négatives à l’égard des célibataires. En ayant un profil qui pourrait être symbolique d’une déviation vis-à-vis des attentes normatives entourant la vie de couple ou de famille, les travailleuses célibataires et sans enfant semblent un point de repère utile pour évaluer cette dernière possibilité. S’attarder autant aux récits scientifiques que profanes permettrait d’explorer les tensions et convergences entre eux. Suivant cet objectif, un échantillon de 32 articles scientifiques et de 22 retranscriptions d’entrevues ont été analysés selon une approche d’analyse de discours guidée par les concepts de répertoire interprétatif (une façon cohérente d’aborder un sujet donné) et de position du sujet (une identité mise en évidence par une façon de parler ou d’écrire). Trois articles ont émergé de cette recherche. Suite à une analyse des thèmes communs utilisés dans l’interprétation de la santé/du bien-être du groupe en question, un répertoire interprétatif surnommé la famille comme référence a été identifié. Ce répertoire expliquerait notamment la tendance observée d’expliquer leur santé/bien-être en référant aux états et aux charactéristiques d’être parent ou partenaire. Cette pratique peut avoir l’effet de voiler leur vie privée ou de la construire comme étant relativement appauvrie. L’article 2 examine comment les membres de ce groupe construisent leur propre bien-être. Il identifie la notion d’équilibre entre plusieurs sphères de vie et une identité de femme dynamique comme éléments centraux aux récits sur leur bien-être. Ces derniers vont à l’encontre de la perception des célibataires ou des personnes sans enfant comme ayant des vies moins épanouies ou enrichies et qui ne sont pas touchées par des questions de conciliation travail-vie personnelle. Le troisième article rassemble les deux types de récits autour des sujets de l’emploi et du statut de célibataire en lien avec le bien-être. Il met en évidence de nombreuses similarités et divergences, et théorise la fonction de ces diverses constructions. En conclusion, j’avance qu’une perspective plus critique face au statut de couple ou familial et de ses aspects normatifs pourrait offrir à la recherche en santé publique un point de réflexivité à développer davantage. / This thesis examines interpretations of the health and wellbeing of single working women without children (SWWWC) in two types of discourse: that of published research in periodicals (scientific) and that of qualitative interviews with members of this group (lay). Demographically, this group’s numbers are significant (28% of employed Canadian women), however, its health and wellbeing is little visible in research. Within the social sciences, research is burgeoning on the challenging experience of being a single adult in couples-oriented cultures, emphasizing the stigma of this status and also how it may be unwittingly perpetuated through research practices. By defying normative expectations pertaining to coupled and family life, SWWWC appear a useful group from which to assess this claim. Drawing on both scientific and lay accounts allows an exploration of the tensions and convergences between them. Samples of 32 scientific articles and 22 interview transcripts were drawn on in the discourse analysis, guided by the concepts of interpretative repertoire (coherent ways of writing about a topic) and subject positions (identities). This research gave rise to three articles. The first analyzes common themes in the explanation of the health/wellbeing of this group in scientific research and identifies an interpretative repertoire termed the family as reference. This repertoire accounts for the frequent explanation of their health by referring to the states and characteristics of holding parental or partner roles. This could obscure their lives or cast them as relatively impoverished, reinforcing single woman stereotypes. Article 2 examines how members of this population construct their own wellbeing. It identifies notions of balance between various life spheres and a positioning as dynamic as central. These challenge understandings of singles/the childless as having lives lacking in breadth or fulfillment, or as untouched by issues of work-life balance. Article 3 brings the scientific and lay materials together over the topics of singleness and paid work in relation to health and wellbeing, highlighting their many similarities and differences. The possible functions of the various interpretations are theorized. I conclude that a more critical perspective on coupled/family status can offer public health research a point of added reflexivity.

Diploma thesis explores the diversity of demographic behavior depending on marital status and is aimed at summarizing the effect of marital status on demographic behavior as a whole. The first phase deals with the concepts of impact of marital status on demographic behavior, explains the theory of selection and causality and outlines the historical development of nuptiality and divorce by using basic indicators. The practical part is based on the results of Population and Housing Censuses during the period 1961-2011 and compares the changes in the structure of the Czech population by sex, age and marital status between censuses. Emphasis is placed on the period after 1990. Furthermore, in separate chapters is mapped out how marital status affects demographic processes of fertility, abortion, nuptiality and mortality. In the case of fertility exploration is emphasized increasing extramarital fertility, as more and more children are born outside marriage, especially to single mothers. By using age-specific and standardized rates are analyzed changes in the development of individual demographic processes between censuses for all categories of marital status. Standardization of mortality for the years 1961, 1970 and 1980 is made on the basis of the formation of shortened life tables and the subsequent modeling of mortality at higher ages. In connection of changing structure of the population by marital status, as the proportion of unmarried and divorced people is growing and the share of people living in a marriage is decreasing, is judged attitude of the Czech public toward marriage and family according to surveys results available.

The purpose of this research was to obtain empirical evidence regarding the knowledge and attitudes among graduate social work students. It examines the relationship between age, previous sex education, marital status and the amount of human sexuality knowledge.

MA (Sociology) / Department of Sociology / Death and bereavement are sensitive issues experienced by all mortal species across the world. When death occurs, some individual are left bereaved. However, all societies have established cultural ways of mourning the dead as a way of healing the bereaved; although it seems the bereavement rituals are decided and performed without the bereaves consent. The aim of the study was to explore the experiences of death and bereavement amongst the young Vhavenda widows. The primary objectives of the study were to identify the challenges experienced by young Vhavenda widows in Vhembe District during the time of death and bereavement; establish whether these women are treated with respect, dignity, and compassion during the process of death and bereavement; understand the coping strategies they employed in dealing with death and bereavement and understand their expectations regarding the role to be played by the family and the community. Finally, the study sought to ascertain the overall impact of the process of death and bereavement on widow’s future lives. A qualitative research method was used to collect indepth data through unstructured interviews. The interviews were conducted using a purposeful sampling method among 13 young widows at Tshikombani village in Nzhelele in Vhembe District. Mbigi’s five finger theory of Ubuntu was employed as the main theory aligning with the study. The research findings indicated that most young widows are coerced into performing bereavement rituals while elders made decisions for some. Only one young widow did not have bereavement rituals performed on her. The Findings also indicate that the participants are not fully aware of their rights as women, wives and citizens of South Africa. These raises need for government institutions to address issues concerning human, women and marital rights to the widows specifically in the rural areas of South Africa. / NRF

The economic and population growth have led to the increased volumes of municipal solid waste in South Africa, hence more pressure to the waste management facilities. Municipal solid waste management is a by-product of everyday living, this is the reason why there is an environmental burden caused by waste to the environment. This study was conducted in Pretoria within the three sampled areas, namely: Garsfontein, Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD). The rationale of the study was to establish the influence and effects of biographic factors (age, marital status, educational background, gender) and religious conviction on littering. This project constitutes both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. About 150 of the questionnaires were administered to each of the three sampled areas. Therefore, the overall proportion of the respondents was 450. Visual inspection was done in all the three sampled areas to observe the littering status quo and waste management situation in these particular areas. The visual inspection uncovered very interesting findings. It was established that Marabastad was cleaner in the morning than in the late hours while Garsfontein was clean throughout the day. Another problem that was discovered, amongst others was that of the condition of the bins in Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD) which was bad compared to Garsfontein. From the questionnaire, it was found that the 72% of elderly respondents (< 36 yrs) are more environmental conscious than the young people (18-35 yrs) who 83% of them claim to litter when there is no bin. Further, among young people, 78% said litter cigarette butts and 93% of these said better street cleanliness would help reduce littering. 72% of adults said religious convictions would help reduce littering. The chi-square and correlation coefficient statistical data analysis methods were used to establish the relationship between different biographic and religious variables. Gender, marital status, monthly income, age and religious conviction were all found to have significant effects on issues regarding littering in the city. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

臺灣地區近五十年來的人口結構，在婚姻組成上有著相當大的變化。婚姻組成的改變，除了一方面作為瞭解過去社會變遷的重要指標外，對於未來的生育率、勞動力及人口結構等重要事件，都會產生根本性的影響，是瞭解社會變遷的重要指標之一。此外，婚姻組成的改變，背後蘊含的，是臺灣社會對於婚姻的想像及態度的變遷。由於婚姻生活對於個人生命歷程，有著絕對關鍵性的影響，故而，對於婚姻的態度，也直接改變了人們對於自身生命歷程的想像。也正因為如此，對於婚姻組成狀態以及婚姻生命歷程的分析與理解，是作為瞭解臺灣社會變遷的重要參考指標，也正是構成本論文研究的核心議題。 前輩學者在討論類似議題時，採用的方法，乃是透過估算各婚姻狀態(未婚、離婚、有偶、喪偶、死亡)間的轉移率，建構多重狀態遞增遞減婚姻生命表，以理解婚姻的生命歷程變化。 然而，此一方法雖然可以提供我們相當多關於婚姻生命歷程變遷的訊息，卻由於資料的難以取得，使得在估算的結果上，各學者間莫衷一是、無有定論。有鑑於此，在探討此一問題時，本研究不採取上述的路徑，而是採用目前在學界公認較為穩定的估算方法--「蘇立文法」。此法雖然透露的訊息，不如多重狀態遞增遞減婚姻生命表來得豐富，卻可以提供我們對於各婚姻狀態別預期壽命相對穩定且可靠的訊息。 在上述討論的脈絡下，本研究以「蘇立文法」，透過1956、1966 、1980、1990、2000年五次的普查資料，配合相對應年度的「國民生命表」，建構這五個年度的「年齡別婚姻生命表」，企圖勾勒臺灣地區近五十年來婚姻生命歷程的變遷。 本論文研究的結果發現，隨著預期壽命的不斷延長，臺灣地區人口處於未婚的預期時間不斷增加，未婚佔其一生壽命的比例也持續上升。同時，離婚的預期時間增加，喪偶的預期時間減少，顯示人們一生中處於鰥寡狀態的比例下降。而可能造成婚姻解組的主要風險，從過去的「喪偶」轉變為「離婚」。另外值得注意的是，雖然未婚、離婚的預期時間增加，生命中總共處於有偶狀態的比例，卻幾乎沒有下降。顯見未婚時間的延長，代表的不是人們不進入婚姻，而是「延後進入婚姻」；離婚時間延長，不是人們從此處於單身，而是很可能透過再婚，再次進入婚姻狀態。 承上所述，本研究發現，由於晚婚、離婚、不婚、再婚等等現象的盛行，過去集中且單一的適婚年齡，開始變得分散、延後。人們可能進入婚姻的時間，不僅僅限於過去的「三十大關」，而是整個的延後。同時，婚姻的歷程，不再如過去單一且穩定的「未婚-有偶-(喪偶)-死亡」，而是像「未婚-(有偶)-(離婚)—(再婚)-(喪偶)-(有偶)-(喪偶)-死亡」一般，呈現相對多元、複雜的婚姻生命歷程。

本研究的主要抱負旨在，藉著分析實證人口普查資料俾便檢視，受限於某種不利的人口條件之桎梏，復加上對迥然相異的特殊生命歷程之體驗，生活在臺灣地區的不同省籍之住民，其如何受到諸如年齡、性別、教育程度等人口或社會經濟特徵之影響，因此決定了自身在某一個時間點上所歸屬的婚姻狀況，及伴隨而來在整個人口母群中婚姻狀況的非常態之集體分佈模式與深度階層化現象。在實際作法上，本研究乃選擇某一個時間橫斷面（一九九０年）為分析基準，並清楚展現位於該時點之上，臺灣地區十五歲以上人口的婚姻狀況之分佈模式所具有的省籍差異；接著則進一步探討省籍和年齡、性別、教育程度等變項間之互動情形，冀賴此釐清隱身於省籍差異表象其後的形塑機制或成因。至於在本研究的定義中，所謂婚姻狀況的「狀態集合」（state space），乃由「未婚」、「有配偶同居」、「離婚分居」與「喪偶」等四個互斥且週延的類屬所構成。 具體而言，本研究有著兩個主要發現：首先，即所謂的第一代外省籍男性，儘管他們之中絕大多數早已過了知天命之年，卻有著極高比例（約30%）仍然未婚，而此一現象有很大的部分乃肇因於移民人口中男多女少、極端不平衡的性比例組成。同時，我們還發現，一種深刻的婚姻階層化確實存在於第一代外省籍男性身上。理由是他們之中因為教育程度低下而遭排除在婚姻市場以外的情形相當嚴重：低學歷的第一代外省籍男性中有接近三分之一的人半被迫地保持無限期單身，此與高學歷的第一代外省籍男性中的未婚者之比例相差了近20%左右，而我們相信前者的構成主體極有可能就是一般社會意象中的自謀生活老兵。惟值得慶幸的是，此種未婚人口比例偏高及附帶產生的深刻婚姻階層化現象在55歲以下的「外省人」身上已不復見。 其次，則是全體「外省人」，尤以男性為然，似乎也比同年輪的本省籍對應群有著更高的離婚分居者之比例，而且至少在40歲以上的各年齡層中皆無例外。這意謂著離婚人口比例偏高在「外省人」（尤其是男性）中也呈現出一種代間一致性（如果我們將40歲以上的「外省人」以55歲為界分作兩個世代的話）。而在我們大致描繪出第一代外省籍男性離婚分居者有著相較於同輩的「本省人」或外省籍女性稍高的失能比例，而且低教育程度者在其中過度代表等特質後，另一種形式的婚姻階層化業已呼之欲出：我們以為，一般社會意象中所普遍指涉的自謀生活之外省籍老兵，於其年輕之際雖然囿於自身有限的教育程度及所得收入而被排除在競爭激烈的婚姻市場以外，但他們之中仍然有一些人可能不甘願於打一輩子光棍，只好退而求其次地降低標準，在逾半百之年後選擇臺灣社會裡處於邊緣地位的非外省籍婦女作為配偶。但無可諱言的是，這樣的組合幾乎得與所謂的「貧賤夫妻」劃上等號；再加上在如此的配對裡，夫妻之間的籍貫、熟悉的語言，生活背景等差距實在太大，幾乎毫無交集可言，我們因此不難想像該類的異質性婚姻（heterogamy）通常很有可能為時不久即告瓦解。雖然我們沒有很明確的證據來支持上述的推論，但我們以為其相當程度上應該可以比較合理地解釋為何55歲以上的外省籍男性離婚分居者中會以低教育程度者為過度代表，同時失能者比例也偏高的事實。至於55歲以下的第二代外省籍男性中仍有較大比例的離婚分居者之原因，由於久缺更為有力的線索，本文遂以移民特質─其因喪失固有親屬網絡，而後者又為緩衝或調解婚姻衝突的主要支持來源，從而產生降低婚姻品質並提高離婚機會的可能－權充說明，實則臆測成分過高，此乃大有進一步探究的必要。 最後，有關本研究所可能面臨到的重大限制主要皆存在於次級資料的適用性上，這可分三點說明。第一就是1956年的普查資料中，軍人並無入籍的問題，這無疑將會導致，在「外省人」的部份，整體性比例的計算被低估，同時可能也無法突顯出究竟在哪幾個單一年齡組中的性比例特別不均衡。第二，就是在我們欲以家戶為單位，從而挑選出於普查當時仍維持已婚或有配偶同居狀態者以進行夫妻雙方的人口屬性或社經特徵之媒合（match）分析時，這些偏誤的樣本（biased sample）─其偏誤性主要來自於排除掉其他曾經維持過已婚或有配偶同居狀態者，如普查當時的喪偶者及離婚分居者─所傳遞出來的訊息是否仍然具有價值則需要更仔細地加以評估。而最後也是最大的一個限制，無疑就是在大陸早有妻室的第一代外省籍男子可能於接受普查之時卻報告自己的身分為未婚。儘管如此，我們仍以為將反映出婚姻之實（de facto）而非婚姻之名（de jural）的普查資料作為分析對象毋寧更富意義，畢竟上述之人在臺灣的的確確過了四十年以上的非婚生活，吾輩焉能不察。在這種看法之下，本研究更需要注意的或許是所謂「自述偏差」之情況，此即受社會壓力影響而做不實宣稱之現象。 目錄 第一章、前言 1 第一節 研究動機與目的 1 第二節 「婚姻狀況」釋義 7 第三節 研究旨趣－人口的婚姻狀況之分佈 10 第四節 影響人口在婚姻狀況上的分佈之可能機制 13 一、生命歷程 13 二、人口條件 14 三、階層化 14 四、其他 15 第二章、文獻探討 17 第一節 生命歷程與婚姻 17 第二節 婚姻擠壓再探 19 第三節 臺灣歷史上的婚姻擠壓經驗 21 第四節 夫妻差異（spouse difference）與婚姻存續的關聯 23 第三章、研究架構 26 第一節 研究方法與分析資料 26 第二節 分析架構 28 第四章、分析結果 30 第一節 臺灣地區人口之婚姻狀況分佈的省籍差異－整體的初步探討 30 第二節 臺灣地區人口之婚姻狀況分佈的省籍差異－省籍和性別的互動 32 一、未婚 32 二、有配偶同居 34 三、離婚分居 37 四、喪偶 37 第三節 婚姻解組（marital dissolution）模式的省籍差異 40 第四節 第一代「外省人」與婚姻階層化 46 第五章、成因探討 50 第一節 第一代「外省人」的性別組成與婚姻擠壓 50 第二節 「外省」老兵特殊的軍旅生活經驗及其影響 50 第三節 外省籍離婚者的基本人口特徵分析 55 第六章、結論 60 第一節 主要研究發現 68 第二節 研究限制 71 參考書目 74 中文部分 74 英文部分 76 附錄 82 圖表目錄 圖1-1-1：一九九五年美國20歲以上人口的婚姻狀況按年齡組分 5 圖1-1-2：一九九０年臺灣地區20歲以上人口的婚姻狀況按年齡組分 5 圖1-3-1：二次戰後歷年臺灣地區人口的婚姻狀況分佈之變化 12 圖2-4-1：夫妻差異與離婚行為所具有的可能關聯形式 25 圖3-3-1：分析架構 28 圖4-1-1：一九九０年臺灣地區本省籍人口的婚姻狀況按單一年齡分 31 圖4-1-2：一九九０年臺灣地區外省籍人口的婚姻狀況按單一年齡分 31 圖4-1-3：一九九０年臺灣地區15歲以上人口中未婚者所佔比例按單一年齡分 33 圖4-1-4：一九九０年臺灣地區單一年齡人口中未婚者所佔比例按籍別及性別分 33 圖4-1-5：一九九０年臺灣地區15歲以上人口中有配偶同居者所佔比例按單一年齡分 35 圖4-1-6：一九九０年臺灣地區單一年齡人口中有配偶同居者所佔比例按籍別及性別分 35 圖4-1-7：一九九０年臺灣地區15歲以上人口中離婚分居者所佔比例按單一年齡分 36 圖4-1-8：一九九０年臺灣地區單一年齡人口中離婚分居者所佔比例按籍別及性別分 36 圖4-1-9：一九九０年臺灣地區15歲以上人口中喪偶者所佔比例按單一年齡分 39 圖4-1-10：一九九０年臺灣地區單一年齡人口中喪偶者所佔比例按籍別及性別分 39 圖4-2-1：一九九０年臺灣地區本省籍人口之婚姻解組模式按單一年齡分 41 圖4-2-2：一九九０年臺灣地區外省籍人口之婚姻解組模式按單一年齡分 41 圖4-2-3：一九九０年臺灣地區單一年齡人口之婚姻解組模式按籍別及性別分 43 圖4-2-4：一九九０年臺灣地區人口之性比例按年齡與籍別分 45 圖4-2-5：一九九０年台灣地區外省籍人口的年齡金字塔 45 圖4-3-1：一九九０年臺灣地區外省籍人口教育程度按年齡組及婚姻狀況分 47 圖4-3-2：一九九０年臺灣地區本省籍人口教育程度按年齡組及婚姻狀況分 47 圖4-3-3：一九九０年臺灣地區55歲及以上人口的婚姻狀況按籍別、性別與教育程度分 49 圖4-3-4：一九九０年臺灣地區15-54歲人口的婚姻狀況按籍別、性別與教育程度分 49 圖5-1-1：歷年外省籍人口之性比例按單一年齡分 54 表1-3-1：歷年美國人口（18歲及以上者）在四種婚姻狀況中的分佈情形 10 表1-3-2：歷年臺灣地區人口（15歲及以上者）在四種婚姻狀況中的分佈情形 10 表1-3-3：一九九五年美國人口的婚姻狀況分佈按年齡組分 11 表4-2-1：一九九０年臺灣地區結婚人數按新郎新娘婚前狀況及年齡組分 43 表5-1-1：一九四五年以後來臺「外省人」按來臺年分及性別分 51 表5-1-2：歷年外省籍現住人口性比例 52 表5-1-3：歷年外省籍人口之性比例按五歲年齡組分 53 表5-3-1：一九九０年臺灣地區的離婚分居者之年齡分佈按籍別與性別分 60 表5-3-2：一九九０年臺灣地區的離婚分居者之身體狀況按籍別及年齡組分 61 表5-3-3：一九九０年臺灣地區的外省籍離婚分居者之身體狀況按性別及年齡組分 61 表5-3-4：一九九０年臺灣地區的離婚分居者之教育程度按籍別及年齡組分 62 表5-3-5：一九九０年臺灣地區的外省籍離婚分居者之教育程度按性別及年齡組分 62 表5-3-6：一九九０年臺灣地區本省籍全體人口、外省籍全體人口、外省籍男性人口和外省籍女性人口的教育程度按年齡組分 63 表5-3-7：一九九０年臺灣地區本省籍全體、外省籍全體、外省籍男性和外省籍女性中離婚分居者的教育程度之代表性指標按年齡組分 64 附錄表1-1：抽樣之15-29歲的丈夫與其妻子之年齡差距（夫減妻）的次數分佈按夫妻省籍配對模式分 82 附錄表1-2：抽樣之15-29歲的丈夫與其妻子之教育程度的交叉比例分析按夫妻省籍配對模式分 83 附錄表2-1：抽樣之30-54歲的丈夫與其妻子之年齡差距（夫減妻）的次數分佈按夫妻省籍配對模式分 84 附錄表2-2：抽樣之30-54歲的丈夫與其妻子之教育程度的交叉比例分析按夫妻省籍配對模式分 85 附錄表3-1：抽樣之55歲以上的丈夫與其妻子之年齡差距（夫減妻）的次數分佈按夫妻省籍配對模式分 86 附錄表3-2：抽樣之55歲以上的丈夫與其妻子之教育程度的交叉比例分析按夫妻省籍配對模式分 87 / The purpose of this study is to explore the domicile difference-between Mainlanders and Taiwanese（except the Aborigines）-of distribution of marital status for total dwellers older than 15 in Taiwan Area. We argue that, dominated by somewhat disadvantageous population conditions（e.g. unbalanced sex ratio）, one who experienced his own unique life course（like migration event） must belong to some kind of marital status at a certain time according to his other characteristics such as domicile, sex, age and education, which will add up to an abcdrmal collective distribution pattern of marital status for the total population. Accordingly, this study is conducted by employing the 1990 census in Taiwan Area. Results suggest that, compared with female Mainlanders and all Taiwanese of the same cohort, the never-married and the divorced are significantly over-represented in the first-generation male Mainlanders who was older than 55 in 1990. We conclude that it is his socioeconomic status but not his domicile that determines whether the first-generation male Mainlander is never-married, married or unmarried in his late years. In other words, we believe that among the first-generation male Mainlanders does exist severe marriage stratification to some degree.

The economic and population growth have led to the increased volumes of municipal solid waste in South Africa, hence more pressure to the waste management facilities. Municipal solid waste management is a by-product of everyday living, this is the reason why there is an environmental burden caused by waste to the environment. This study was conducted in Pretoria within the three sampled areas, namely: Garsfontein, Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD). The rationale of the study was to establish the influence and effects of biographic factors (age, marital status, educational background, gender) and religious conviction on littering. This project constitutes both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. About 150 of the questionnaires were administered to each of the three sampled areas. Therefore, the overall proportion of the respondents was 450. Visual inspection was done in all the three sampled areas to observe the littering status quo and waste management situation in these particular areas. The visual inspection uncovered very interesting findings. It was established that Marabastad was cleaner in the morning than in the late hours while Garsfontein was clean throughout the day. Another problem that was discovered, amongst others was that of the condition of the bins in Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD) which was bad compared to Garsfontein. From the questionnaire, it was found that the 72% of elderly respondents (< 36 yrs) are more environmental conscious than the young people (18-35 yrs) who 83% of them claim to litter when there is no bin. Further, among young people, 78% said litter cigarette butts and 93% of these said better street cleanliness would help reduce littering. 72% of adults said religious convictions would help reduce littering. The chi-square and correlation coefficient statistical data analysis methods were used to establish the relationship between different biographic and religious variables. Gender, marital status, monthly income, age and religious conviction were all found to have significant effects on issues regarding littering in the city. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)