Bakgrund: Ingen kan fly från döden. Det är en process som ställer en inför psykiska, fysiska, sociala men främst existentiella utmaningar och svårigheter. Intensivvården med dess livsuppehållande behandling är en ung konst. Exempelvis började maskiner för artificiell ventilation användas under 50- talet. I vår nutid omfattas vård i livets slutskede av den palliativa vården. Socialstyrelsen publicerade 1992 en handbok som gav vägledning i form av riktlinjer om vissa etiska frågor bakom livsuppehållande behandling. Syfte: Att skapa en överblick över de juridiska dimensionerna i beslutet om att avstå från eller avbryta livsuppehållande medicinska åtgärder, och att granska de viktigaste etiska argumenten kring denna fråga. Metod: Studien baserades på en texttolkande, hermeneutisk metod. Begrepps- och argumentationsanalys genomfördes. Relevant litteratur valdes utifrån projektarbetets frågeställning som sedan analyserades ur ett etiskt perspektiv. Resultat: Exempel på livsuppehållande behandlingar är andningsunderstödjande behandlingar så som respirator, assisterad cirkulation i form av HLR samt dialys eller tillförsel av blodprodukter, vätska och näring. En patient som är beslutskapabel har rätt att neka livsuppehållande behandling. Om patienten inte är beslutskapabel ska de som känner patienten bäst i samråd med vårdteamet besluta vad patienten hade önskat om denne var beslutskapabel. Ett ställningstagande bör alltid utgå från patientens bästa intresse. Slutsats: Att endast utgå från vetenskap och beprövad erfarenhet kan i vissa ögon ses som >hjärtlöst<. Beslutet måste vara baserat på empati, medmänsklighet, vetenskap, beprövad erfarenhet men framför allt med patientens bästa intresse i absoluta fokus.

Medicin and drugs work at a pharmacological level of chemis-try, but they also work on a level of psychology. How we perceive and react to things, not just emotionally, but also physiologically is affected not only by what the thing is, but by the context in which we con-sume it. This is why wine tastes better if you pour it from a heavier bottle, and almost everything be-comes more desirable if in scarce supply. Here lies an important question. You got two choices, you either say; “This is okay and we should encourage this. What’s the job of a painkiller if not reducing pain. And if you can reduce pain with words and color rather than with chemicals, who’s to say that’s an invalid thing to do.” Or you say;“This is a very self-serving jus-tification and defence of design and marketing.” But wether we like it or not, making someone pay more for a drug that says “For neck pain” will make that drug more effective at treating neck pain. The same thing presented in two different ways can be good, or bad. And this is en-tirely dependent on context, because everything is part pla-cebo. Ethics and morals always comes in question, especially when dealing with placebos. So how do we design ethically and still produce the desired results? This is the perfect metaphor for design and perceived value. The negative attitude is partly due to the fact that we do not understand how it works, despite numerous studies showing that it works. Just like design and perceived value, the value of a placebo is added in a subconscious way. By investigating use of per-ceived value, how its works and why we don’t like it, I aim to create an ethically correct drug concept.

Det blir allt vanligare att föreslå att icke-transparant artificiell intelligens, s.k. black boxes, används inom akutmedicinen. I denna uppsats används etisk analys för att härleda sju riktlinjer för utveckling och användning av black boxes i akutmedicin. Analysen är grundad på sju variationer av ett tankeexperiment som involverar en läkare, en black box och en patient med bröstsmärta på en akutavdelning. Grundläggande begrepp, inklusive artificiell intelligens, black boxes, metoder för transparens, akutmedicin och etisk analys behandlas detaljerat. Tre viktiga områden av etisk vikt identifieras: samtycke; kultur, agentskap och privatliv; och skyldigheter. Dessa områden ger upphov till de sju variationerna. För varje variation urskiljs en viktig etisk fråga som identifieras och analyseras. En riktlinje formuleras och dess etiska rimlighet testas utifrån konsekventialistiska och deontologiska metoder. Tillämpningen av riktlinjerna på medicin i allmänhet, och angelägenheten av fortsatt etiska analys av black boxes och artificiell intelligens inom akutmedicin klargörs. / Artificially intelligent black boxes are increasingly being proposed for emergency medicine settings; this paper uses ethical analysis to develop seven practical guidelines for emergency medicine black box creation and use. The analysis is built around seven variations of a thought experiment involving a doctor, a black box, and a patient presenting chest pain in an emergency department. Foundational concepts, including artificial intelligence, black boxes, transparency methods, emergency medicine, and ethical analysis are expanded upon. Three major areas of ethical concern are identified, namely consent; culture, agency, and privacy; and fault. These areas give rise to the seven variations. For each, a key ethical question it illustrates is identified and analyzed. A practical guideline is then stated, and its ethical acceptability tested using consequentialist and deontological approaches. The applicability of the guidelines to medicine more generally, and the urgency of continued ethical analysis of black box artificial intelligence in emergency medicine, are clarified.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Univ., 2008. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

The aim of this essay is to investigate the ethical issues that permeated the carbohydrate experiment that was going on at Vipeholm's hospital for "uneducable insane" in Sweden. The material about the experiment is taken from Elin Bommenel's dissertation The Sugar Experiment: The Caries Experiments 1943–1960 at Vipeholm Hospital for the Insane. To create understanding, Beauchamp and Childress´s four ethical principles, which are used as ethical guidelines in health care, were used in the analysis of the experiment. The four principles are the principle of nonmaleficence, the principle of respect for autonomy, the principle of beneficence and the principle of justice. The analysis based on the four principles showed that the Vipeholme experiment is complex to understand as Beauchamp and Childress's principles provided a picture of the research which from many aspects cannot be seen as ethically correct. From other aspects, however, some elements can be supported by Beauchamp and Childress. The researchers had the task of investigating caries that would successfully help many people. Based on the principle of beneficence, one could imagine that the researchers acted correctly, but had no respect for the patients' autonomous decisions. The two principles are then in conflict with each other, something that critics of Beauchamp and Childress point out as a shortcoming.

Bakgrund: När en patient drabbas av hjärtstopp ingår det i allmänsjuksköterskans uppgifter att påbörja HLR för att försöka rädda patientens liv. På allmän vårdavdelning används mer avancerad behandling, så kallad S-HLR. En hjärtstoppsituation kan upplevas skrämmande för sjuksköterskan eftersom hen sannolikt behöver gå från en mer lugn till en akut situation. Det kan kännas påfrestande men kunskap och erfarenhet hjälper hen att agera. Behandlingen av hjärtstopp utförs i team tillsammans med flera professioner vilket innebär att det är viktigt med ett väl fungerande teamarbete. Syfte: Syftet med studien var att undersöka allmänsjuksköterskors upplevelser av att vårda vid ett hjärtstopp på vårdavdelningar. Metod: Som metod valdes en kvalitativ intervjustudie där resultatet baserades på sju semistrukturerade intervjuer. Intervjuerna transkriberades och analyserades sedan med en kvalitativ innehållsanalys som besvarade syftet för studien. Resultat: Resultatet visade på att det fanns fyra kategorier som bidrog till upplevelsen av hjärtstopp; ”Kunskap om hjärtstopp” där vikten av utbildning, rutiner och erfarenhet påtalades. ”När hjärtstopp pågår” som innefattar första reaktionen, HLR-situationen och att avbryta HLR. ”Att arbeta i team” bestående av samarbete, trygghet och verktyg för teamet. Slutligen ”Bearbetning efter hjärtstopp” som handlade om debriefing, uppföljning och uppfattning om hjärtstopp. Alla dessa områden bildade tillsammans en uppfattning av hjärtstopp. Slutsats: Hjärtstoppsvård är en påfrestande situation som sjuksköterskan minns länge och det är därför viktigt att avdelningarna arbetar med samtliga kategorier som framkommit i resultatet för att stödja och underlätta för de sjuksköterskor som engageras vid ett hjärtstopp på en vårdavdelning. / Background: When a patient has a cardiac arrest, it is included in the RN's duties to start CPR in order to try to save the patient's life. In the general nursing ward, more advanced treatment, so-called hospital CPR, is used. A cardiac arrest can be daunting for the nurse because they probably need to shift from a calm situation to an emergency situation. It may feel stressful, but knowledge and experience helps the RN to act. The treatment of cardiac arrest is performed in teams with several professions which means that it is important to have a good teamwork. Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the RN’s experiences of caring for a cardiac arrest occurring at nursing wards. Method: As a method, a qualitative interview study was chosen, based on seven semi- structured interviews. The interviews were transcribed and then analyzed with a qualitative content analysis that suited the aim of the study. Result: The result showed that there were four categories that contributed to the experience of cardiac arrest; "Knowledge of cardiac arrest", emphasizing the importance of education, routines and experience. "When cardiac arrest is in progress" that includes the first response, CPR situation, and termination of CPR. "Working in team" consisting of cooperation, safety and instruments for teamwork. Finally, "Processing after cardiac arrest" that involved debriefing, follow-up and perception of cardiac arrest. All of these areas together formed an idea of ​​cardiac arrest. Conclusion: Cardiac arrest is an urgent situation that the nurse remembers for a long time, and it is therefore important that the wards work with all categories identified in the results to support and facilitate the nurses engaged in a cardiac arrest in a nursing ward.

Introduktion: Operationssjuksköterskor har begränsade möjligheter till att möta patienten och studier fokuserar huvudsakligen på den intraoperativa vården. Operationssjuksköterska möter patienten ett kort ögonblick strax innan operationen och oftast tillsammans med övriga i operationsteamet. Syfte: Syftet var att beskriva operationssjuksköterskans erfarenheter av möten med patienten under den perioperativa vårdprocessen. Metod: Studien var en kvalitativ intervjustudie. Totalt genomfördes sex intervjuer med operationssjuksköterskor med minst tre års yrkeserfarenhet, verksamma vid ett sjukhus i mellersta Sverige. Data analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: I analysen framkom tre kategorier med tillhörande underkategorier som beskrev operationssjuksköterskans möte med patienten inom perioperativ vård: Etablera en första kontakt - ge sig till känna, skapa en vårdrelation, att göra patienten delaktig i vården; Att säkerställa patientens vård - att förhindra att patienten utsätts för skador, ha möjlighet att kunna utvärdera genomförda omvårdnadsåtgärder; Att bevara patientens integritet – viljan att göra gott. Slutsats: I mötet med patienten skapas en vårdrelation, vilket medför att patienten blir delaktig i vården och operationssjuksköterskan ges möjlighet att kunna planera, genomföra och utvärdera genomförda omvårdnadsåtgärder, vilket bidrar till utveckling av patientens vård och operationssjuksköterskans kompetens. / Introduction: Operating theatre nurses have limited opportunities to meet the patient and studies focuses mainly on the intraoperative care. Operating theatre nurse meets the patient briefly just before the surgery together with other members of the surgical team. Aim: The aim of the study was to describe operating theatre nurse´s experiences of meeting with the patient during the perioperative nursing process.Method: The study was a qualitative interview study. In total six interviews with operating theatre nurses with at least three years of professional experience and were working at a hospital in central Sweden. The data was analysed through a content analysis. Results: The analysis revealed three categories with associated subcategories that described the operating theatre nurses´ meeting with the patient in the perioperative care: To establish a first contact – to make themselves known, to create a care relationship, making the patient involved in care; To ensure patient care – to prevent patient exposure to injuries, having the opportunity to evaluate the implemented care measures; To preserve patient privacy – wanting to do good. Conclusion: In the meeting with the patient a care relationship is created, which makes the patient involved in the care and the operating theatre nurse is given the opportunity to plan, to implement and to evaluate the implemented care measures, which contributes to the development of the patient´s care and the operating theatre nurse´s competence.

Under det senaste decenniet har artificiell intelligens (AI) inom medicin väckt stort intresse för sin förmåga att automatisera diagnos, behandling och prognos av sjukdomar. Denna studie avser att undersöka etiska utmaningar med att använda AI som beslutsstöd inom medicinsk diagnostik. Genom forskningsartiklar, litteratur samt intervjuer med personer som arbetar inom vården såsom läkare, forskare och IT-experter, identifierades primära utmaningar och en hög acceptans för AI-användning bland samtliga åtta respondenter som intervjuats. Resultaten understryker behoven av att balansera teknologins fördelar med etiska överväganden och betonar vikten av kontinuerlig utbildning för att säkerställa ansvarsfull användning. Avslutningsvis identifierar studien ett antal forskningsområden för att fördjupa förståelsen av AI-teknologins utveckling och dess applicering i vårdmiljön. / During the past decade, artificial intelligence (AI) in medicine has garnered significant interest for its ability to automate diagnosis, treatment and disease prognosis. This study aims to investigate ethical challenges associated with using AI as decision support in medical diagnostics. Through research articles, literature and interviews with healthcare professionals such as physicians, researchers and IT experts, primary challenges were identified along with high acceptance of AI use among all eight respondents interviewed. The findings emphasize the need to balance the benefits of technology with ethical considerations and stress the importance of continuous education to ensure responsible use. Finally, the study identifies several research areas to deepen understanding of AI technology development and its application in healthcare settings.

No description available.

The rarity of a disease can give rise to challenges that differ from conventional diseases. For example, rarity hampers research and development of new drugs, and patients with severe, rare diseases have limited access to qualified treatments. When drugs are available, clinical evidence has higher uncertainty and the drugs can be very expensive. When setting priorities in the healthcare sector, treatments aimed at patients with rare diseases, so called orphan drugs, have become a source of concern. Orphan drugs seldom show solid evidence of effectiveness or cost-effectiveness. Still, treatments for rare disease patients, available on the European market, has increased rapidly since the adoption of a regulation offering incentives for research and development of orphan drugs. The question arises as to whether the publicly funded health care system should provide such expensive treatments, and if so, to what extent. This doctoral thesis aims to investigate healthcare priority setting and rare diseases in the context of orphan drug reimbursement. Priority setting for orphan drugs is located at the intersection of economic, ethical and psychological perspectives. This intersection is explored by studying the public’s view on the relevance of rarity when setting priorities for orphan drugs, and by examining how orphan drugs are managed when making reimbursement decisions in practice. Papers I and II in this thesis employ quantitative, experimental methods in order to investigate preferences for prioritising rare diseases, and the extent to which psychological factors influence such preferences. Papers III and IV employ qualitative methods to further explore what factors (apart from rarity) influence priority-setting decisions for orphan drugs, as well as how decisions regarding orphan drugs are made in practice in England, France, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden. Combining quantitative and qualitative methods has provided a more comprehensive understanding of the topic explored in the thesis, and the methods have complemented each other. Paper I shows that there is no general preference for giving higher priority to rare disease patients when allocating resources between rare and common disease patients. However, results show that preferences for treating the rare patients are malleable to a set of psychological factors, in particular “proportion dominance”. Paper II shows that the identifiability of an individual has no, or a negative, influence on the share of respondents choosing to allocate resources to him/her (compared to a nonidentified individual). Paper III confirms that rarity per se is not seen as a factor that should influence priority-setting decisions (i.e. accept a greater willingness to pay for orphan drugs), however, other factors such as disease severity, treatment effect and whether there are treatment alternatives were seen as relevant for consideration. Paper IV explores the challenges with and solutions for orphan drug reimbursement, as perceived by different actors in five European countries. Perceived challenges are related to the components involved when making reimbursement decisions, to the reimbursement system, and to the acceptance of the final decision. Solutions are either specific for orphan drugs, or general measures that can be used for orphan drugs as well as for other drugs. In conclusion, priority setting for orphan drugs is complex and requires particular attention from decision makers. There are many factors to consider when making reimbursement decisions for orphan drugs. The consequences of a decision are potentially severe (both for rare disease patients and for common disease patients, depending on the decision) and psychological factors can potentially influence decisions.