O presente estudo tem como tema a manutenção e/ou revitalização de línguas minoritárias, tomando por base dois contextos de comunidades de imigração pomerana, Santa Maria de Jetibá (ES) e Canguçu (RS). São objetivos do estudo (1) compreender os fatores que determinam a dinâmica de manutenção e/ou substituição de uma língua minoritária e (2) entender as medidas ou ações de intervenção que buscam manter e/ou revitalizar a língua pomerana com base nos fatores anteriormente identificados. Com isso, busca-se responder às seguintes perguntas de pesquisa: (1) Quais fatores motivam os falantes ao uso e manutenção da língua minoritária de imigração? (2) Como se pode intervir no processo de perda e substituição linguística, a fim de manter e/ou revitalizar uma língua minoritária? (3) Em que medida as políticas linguísticas contribuem para esse processo e incorporam em suas ações medidas educativas de promoção do pomerano como patrimônio cultural imaterial? (4) Como são significadas ou percebidas essas políticas pelos falantes e não falantes de pomerano? Em outras palavras, essas políticas incluem ou excluem membros da comunidade em sua totalidade? (5) A quem deve se dirigir essa política linguística de revitalização da língua minoritária? Para responder a estas perguntas, torna-se imprescindível combinar pressupostos teóricos da área de política linguística com métodos de análise e interpretação da sociolinguística de estudo do plurilinguismo e de contatos linguísticos. A análise comparativa dos dois contextos selecionados segue o princípio da pluridimensionalidade (cf. THUN, 1998), considerando para isso o comportamento linguístico de grupos etários distintos (dimensão diageracional), com nível de escolaridade mais baixo ou mais elevado (dimensão diastrática), falantes e não-falantes de pomerano (dimensão dialingual), em diferentes situações e práticas sociais (dimensão diafásica), além da observação participante, incluindo anotações em diário de campo. Nesse modelo, a variável a ser analisada aqui é o <uso ou não uso da língua minoritária>, sobre a qual recai a interpretação a ser feita neste estudo em relação às perguntas de pesquisa colocadas. Como variantes possíveis de serem registradas nos dois contextos em estudo, podemos considerar os “estados de manutenção da língua” previstos no documento da UNESCO (2013) e no modelo de Edwards (1992), além de observações e acréscimos sugeridos com base nos resultados do presente estudo. Esses resultados apontam que ainda há um alto grau de manutenção da língua pomerana nas localidades em estudo. Entretanto, apesar do estado atual da língua ainda ser bastante presente nos diversos âmbitos da comunidade, como o comércio, os espaços da igreja, dentre outros, a língua pomerana encontra-se em um contínuo crescente de perda linguística e substituição para o monolinguismo em português. A maior problemática recai na transmissão diageracional da língua materna para as gerações mais novas (GI), as entrevistas e a observação in loco comprovam as dificuldades de ensinar a língua pomerana em casa, fator que é agravado por uma escolarização excludente, que não problematiza a conscientização linguística (language awareness) dos indivíduos falantes e não falantes de pomerano. Nesse aspecto, uma política linguística de revitalização, principalmente, para a geração jovem, futuros pais, que reconheça a centralidade da família na manutenção da língua de imigração, se mostra urgente em ambas as localidades analisadas. Para abrigar as diferenças locais, ou seja, a diversidade e a pluralidade aí existente, o caminho que, a partir da pesquisa, se oferece como o mais eficaz e conciliador parece ser o de uma identidade plural e de uma política que defenda uma postura plural, em que os benefícios do plurilinguismo se coloquem à frente da defesa de línguas em particular. / The subject of the present study aims to discuss the maintenance and/or revitalization of minority languages, based on the examination of two cases of Pomeranian immigration communities in two different contexts, Santa Maria do Jetibá (ES) and Canguçu (RS). The purpose of this study is (1) to comprehend the factors that determine the maintenance and/or substitution of a minority language’s dynamic and (2) to understand the intervention steps or actions that preserve and/or revitalize the Pomeranian language, based on the facts previously mentioned. Therefore, it is pertinent to respond the following research questions: (1) Which factors motivate the speakers to the usage and maintenance of an immigrant minority language? (2) How can one interfere in the process of linguistics loss and substitution, in order to preserve and/or revitalize a minority language? (3) In what level the linguistics policies contribute to this process and incorporate to their actions educational steps that promote the Pomeranian as intangible cultural heritage? (4) How are these policies perceived by speakers and non-Pomeranian speakers? In other words, does these policies include or exclude the community members in their totality? (5) To whom this minority language’s revitalization linguistics policy must be directed? To respond to these questions it is indispensable to combine linguistics policy field’s theoretical assumptions to sociolinguistics interpretation and analysis’ methods of plurilingualism study and linguistic contacts. The comparative analysis of the two selected contexts follow the multidimensionality principle (cf. THUN, 1998), considering, therefore, the linguistic behaviour of different age groups (diagenerational dimension), with lower or higher educational level (diastratical dimension), speakers or non-Pomeranian speakers (dialingual dimension), in distinct situations and social practices (diaphasic dimension), in addition to the participant observation, including field notes. In this model, the variable to be analyzed is the <use or non use of the minority language>, over which lies the interpretation to be made in this study, taking into account the research questions previously presented. As possible variants to be registered in the two given contexts, we could consider consider the "states of language maintenance" foreseen in the UNESCO’s document (2013) and Edwards model (1922), as well as the observations and additions suggested based on the results of the present study. These results indicate that there is still a high degree of maintenance of the Pomeranian language in the study sites. However, although the current state of the language is still very present in the various spheres of the community, such as commerce, church spaces, among others, the Pomeranian language is in a growing continuum of linguistic loss and substitution for monolingualism in Portuguese. The main problems are in the diagenerational transmission of the mother tongue to the younger generations (G1), interviews and on-site observation prove the difficulties of teaching the Pomeranian language at home, a factor that is aggravated by an exclusionary schooling, which does not problematize the linguistic awareness of speaking and non-Pomeranian speakers. In this aspect, a revitalization language policy, mainly for the younger generation, future parents, is urgent in both locations focus the research. Revitalization actions that give importance to the importance of the family for the maintenance of the immigrant language, is from the recognition of its plural identity and a policy that defends a plural position that emphasizes the benefits of plurilingualism.

O presente estudo tem como tema a manutenção e/ou revitalização de línguas minoritárias, tomando por base dois contextos de comunidades de imigração pomerana, Santa Maria de Jetibá (ES) e Canguçu (RS). São objetivos do estudo (1) compreender os fatores que determinam a dinâmica de manutenção e/ou substituição de uma língua minoritária e (2) entender as medidas ou ações de intervenção que buscam manter e/ou revitalizar a língua pomerana com base nos fatores anteriormente identificados. Com isso, busca-se responder às seguintes perguntas de pesquisa: (1) Quais fatores motivam os falantes ao uso e manutenção da língua minoritária de imigração? (2) Como se pode intervir no processo de perda e substituição linguística, a fim de manter e/ou revitalizar uma língua minoritária? (3) Em que medida as políticas linguísticas contribuem para esse processo e incorporam em suas ações medidas educativas de promoção do pomerano como patrimônio cultural imaterial? (4) Como são significadas ou percebidas essas políticas pelos falantes e não falantes de pomerano? Em outras palavras, essas políticas incluem ou excluem membros da comunidade em sua totalidade? (5) A quem deve se dirigir essa política linguística de revitalização da língua minoritária? Para responder a estas perguntas, torna-se imprescindível combinar pressupostos teóricos da área de política linguística com métodos de análise e interpretação da sociolinguística de estudo do plurilinguismo e de contatos linguísticos. A análise comparativa dos dois contextos selecionados segue o princípio da pluridimensionalidade (cf. THUN, 1998), considerando para isso o comportamento linguístico de grupos etários distintos (dimensão diageracional), com nível de escolaridade mais baixo ou mais elevado (dimensão diastrática), falantes e não-falantes de pomerano (dimensão dialingual), em diferentes situações e práticas sociais (dimensão diafásica), além da observação participante, incluindo anotações em diário de campo. Nesse modelo, a variável a ser analisada aqui é o <uso ou não uso da língua minoritária>, sobre a qual recai a interpretação a ser feita neste estudo em relação às perguntas de pesquisa colocadas. Como variantes possíveis de serem registradas nos dois contextos em estudo, podemos considerar os “estados de manutenção da língua” previstos no documento da UNESCO (2013) e no modelo de Edwards (1992), além de observações e acréscimos sugeridos com base nos resultados do presente estudo. Esses resultados apontam que ainda há um alto grau de manutenção da língua pomerana nas localidades em estudo. Entretanto, apesar do estado atual da língua ainda ser bastante presente nos diversos âmbitos da comunidade, como o comércio, os espaços da igreja, dentre outros, a língua pomerana encontra-se em um contínuo crescente de perda linguística e substituição para o monolinguismo em português. A maior problemática recai na transmissão diageracional da língua materna para as gerações mais novas (GI), as entrevistas e a observação in loco comprovam as dificuldades de ensinar a língua pomerana em casa, fator que é agravado por uma escolarização excludente, que não problematiza a conscientização linguística (language awareness) dos indivíduos falantes e não falantes de pomerano. Nesse aspecto, uma política linguística de revitalização, principalmente, para a geração jovem, futuros pais, que reconheça a centralidade da família na manutenção da língua de imigração, se mostra urgente em ambas as localidades analisadas. Para abrigar as diferenças locais, ou seja, a diversidade e a pluralidade aí existente, o caminho que, a partir da pesquisa, se oferece como o mais eficaz e conciliador parece ser o de uma identidade plural e de uma política que defenda uma postura plural, em que os benefícios do plurilinguismo se coloquem à frente da defesa de línguas em particular. / The subject of the present study aims to discuss the maintenance and/or revitalization of minority languages, based on the examination of two cases of Pomeranian immigration communities in two different contexts, Santa Maria do Jetibá (ES) and Canguçu (RS). The purpose of this study is (1) to comprehend the factors that determine the maintenance and/or substitution of a minority language’s dynamic and (2) to understand the intervention steps or actions that preserve and/or revitalize the Pomeranian language, based on the facts previously mentioned. Therefore, it is pertinent to respond the following research questions: (1) Which factors motivate the speakers to the usage and maintenance of an immigrant minority language? (2) How can one interfere in the process of linguistics loss and substitution, in order to preserve and/or revitalize a minority language? (3) In what level the linguistics policies contribute to this process and incorporate to their actions educational steps that promote the Pomeranian as intangible cultural heritage? (4) How are these policies perceived by speakers and non-Pomeranian speakers? In other words, does these policies include or exclude the community members in their totality? (5) To whom this minority language’s revitalization linguistics policy must be directed? To respond to these questions it is indispensable to combine linguistics policy field’s theoretical assumptions to sociolinguistics interpretation and analysis’ methods of plurilingualism study and linguistic contacts. The comparative analysis of the two selected contexts follow the multidimensionality principle (cf. THUN, 1998), considering, therefore, the linguistic behaviour of different age groups (diagenerational dimension), with lower or higher educational level (diastratical dimension), speakers or non-Pomeranian speakers (dialingual dimension), in distinct situations and social practices (diaphasic dimension), in addition to the participant observation, including field notes. In this model, the variable to be analyzed is the <use or non use of the minority language>, over which lies the interpretation to be made in this study, taking into account the research questions previously presented. As possible variants to be registered in the two given contexts, we could consider consider the "states of language maintenance" foreseen in the UNESCO’s document (2013) and Edwards model (1922), as well as the observations and additions suggested based on the results of the present study. These results indicate that there is still a high degree of maintenance of the Pomeranian language in the study sites. However, although the current state of the language is still very present in the various spheres of the community, such as commerce, church spaces, among others, the Pomeranian language is in a growing continuum of linguistic loss and substitution for monolingualism in Portuguese. The main problems are in the diagenerational transmission of the mother tongue to the younger generations (G1), interviews and on-site observation prove the difficulties of teaching the Pomeranian language at home, a factor that is aggravated by an exclusionary schooling, which does not problematize the linguistic awareness of speaking and non-Pomeranian speakers. In this aspect, a revitalization language policy, mainly for the younger generation, future parents, is urgent in both locations focus the research. Revitalization actions that give importance to the importance of the family for the maintenance of the immigrant language, is from the recognition of its plural identity and a policy that defends a plural position that emphasizes the benefits of plurilingualism.

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar las actitudes actuales hacia la variedad mapudungun dentro de sus estudiantes en Chile. Existen diferentes tipos de estudiantes, diferentes edades y motivaciones que conllevan al estudio de esta lengua ancestral. Para conseguir nuestros objetivos, realizamos algunas encuestas y entrevistas con el fin de analizar el estado de la cuestión actual. Hemos comprobado que, a pesar de las desavenencias con la sociedad chilena, las actitudes hacia el mapudungun han mejorado positivamente, además existen entidades dedicadas al trabajo de revitalización, lo que ayuda a obtener un respaldo del gobierno para trabajar, aunque a pasos lentos, en la revitalización de la lengua. / The purpose of this essay is to analyze the current attitudes towards the mapuche language among its students. There are different kinds of students, varieties of ages and motivations that entails the study of this ancestral language. To achieve our objectives, we conducted an interview and a few surveys to analyze the current state towards the variety. We have confirmed that despite the disagreements with the Chilean society, the attitudes towards the mapuche language have improved positively, additionally to this, we found there are entities dedicated to the work of revitalization, which helps to get governmental support, even if at a slow pace, they are working on the language revitalization.

Orientador: Terezinha de Jesus Machado / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T20:54:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Felix_Ademilde_D.pdf: 1079434 bytes, checksum: 150ba0ba7c5f4b960f365d06d0c657b3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Discuto, nesta tese, como se caracteriza a interação social, em uma escola inclusiva, entre surdos e ouvintes e faço reflexões sobre as representações que são construídas sobre surdez e língua de sinais, bem como sobre identidades surdas. O que torna esse ambiente sociolingüisticamente complexo é o fato de haver, na sala de aula pesquisada, quatro alunos surdos não usuários do português oral, sendo que a grande maioria dos alunos ouvintes e a professora não sabem LIBRAS. Por se tratar de um trabalho de cunho etnográfico (Erickson, 1984 e 1986, Van Lier, 1990; Mason, 1997; Winkin, 1998; Cavalcanti, 2000), o corpus provém de registros (Mason, 1997; Cavalcanti, 2000) gerados por observação não-participante. Tais registros foram feitos por meio de anotações e diário de campo, gravação em áudio e posterior transcrição, entrevistas e conversas formais e informais, bem como diário retrospectivo. A fundamentação teórica se alicerça em reflexões da Lingüística Aplicada (Cavalcanti, 1999; Canagarajah, 1999 e 2004; Maher, 1997 e 2007; Silva, 2005; Favorito, 2006), da Educação Intercultural (McLaren, 2000; Moreira, 2002; Maher, 2007); da Educação Bilíngüe para Minorias (Souza, 1998 e 2007; Souza & Góes, 1999) e dos Estudos Surdos (Perlin, 2006). Dada sua importância para a discussão, conceitos de representação e identidade foram buscados nos Estudos Culturais (Hall, 1997; da Silva, 2000 e 2005) e o de resistência na Antropologia e História (Certeau, 1994), enquanto que a noção de estabelecidos e outsiders foi trazida da Sociologia (Elias & Scotson, 2000). Os resultados mostram que a interação social entre a professorasujeito e seus alunos surdos ocorria de diversas maneiras. Por ter uma representação positiva da língua de sinais, da surdez e desses alunos, a professora utilizou diversos meios para com eles interagir. Já a comunicação entre os alunos surdos ocorria com freqüência pelo fato de os quatro serem usuários da língua de sinais. Além disso, naqueles momentos em que, devido à diferença lingüística, não lhes era possível participar das atividades da sala de aula, eles se valiam da tática (Certeau, op. cit.) de se comunicarem em LIBRAS em espaços definidos como 'zonas de refúgio¿ (Canagarajah, op. cit.), o que lhes permitia atribuir, a si próprios, identidades mais positivas. Por outro lado, embora os momentos de interação entre alunos surdos e ouvintes não tenham ocorrido com muita freqüência, com exceção daqueles que se realizavam com uma aluna ouvinte bilíngüe, as representações que os aprendizes ouvintes construíram da língua de sinais e da surdez, assim como as identidades que atribuíram aos alunos surdos eram, na maioria das vezes, positivas / Abstract: This dissertation discusses the ways in which social interaction occurs among four deaf students, a hearing teacher and hearing students at an inclusive public school. It also reflects about the representations of sign language and deafness built by the subjects, as well as about deaf identities constructions in this context. The classroom where the actions take place can be classified as sociolinguistically complex due to the fact that, in such school, the deaf students use sign language, and neither the teacher nor most of the other students know it. Following ethnographic perspectives (Erickson, 1984 and 1986, Van Lier, 1990; Mason, 1997; Winkin, 1998; Cavalcanti, 2000) the registers for this study were generated (Mason, 1997; Cavalcanti, 2000) by non participant observation. These registers took the form of field notes, diaries, audio recordings and their transcriptions, interviews and formal and informal talks, as well as retrospective diary. The theoretical discussion was grounded on contributions from Applied Linguistics (Maher, 1997, Cavalcanti, 1999; Canagarajah, 1999 and 2004; Silva, 2005; Favorito, 2006); Intercultural Education (McLaren, 2000, Moreira, 2002; Maher, 2007); Bilingual Studies for Minorities (Maher, 2007; Souza, 1998 and 2007; Souza e Góes, 1999), and Deaf Studies (Perlin, 2006). Concepts such as representation and identity ¿ as observed in Cultural Studies (Hall, 1998; da Silva, 2000) ¿ and that of resistance ¿ as seen in Anthropology and History (Certeau, 1994) ¿ and the notion of participants and outsiders ¿ as proposed in Sociology (Elias & Scotson, 2000) ¿ were specifically focused. The results show that the nature of social interaction among the hearing teacher and her deaf students occurred in different ways. As she had not only a positive representation of sign language and deafness, but also of her deaf students, the teacher developed different ways for interacting with them. Communication among the four deaf students frequently occurred, since all of them were users of sign language. Besides, in moments when linguistic difference prevented them from taking part in classroom activities, they used the tactic (Certeau, op. cit.) of talking to each other in sign language in spaces defined as safe houses (Canagarajah, op. cit.). Such strategy allowed them to attribute more positive identities to themselves. On the other hand, the moments of social interaction between deaf students and hearing students were not frequent, except for those that occurred with a hearing bilingual student. Nevertheless, the representations that the hearing students constructed of sign language and deafness, as well as the identities that they attributed to their deaf peers were, most of the time, positive / Doutorado / Multiculturalismo, Plurilinguismo e Educação Bilingue / Doutor em Linguística Aplicada

La population autochtone de la vallée de Kathmandu, les Néwar, a vu sa langue, le néwari ou népalbhasa, et l’une de ses religions, le bouddhisme, se trouver minorées par l’annexion militaire de leur territoire au Népal de la dynastie Shah, hindoue et népaliphone, en 1769. Un siècle plus tard, la politique de discrimination de la langue et de la religion bouddhiste lancée par l’Etat à l’encontre des Néwar a provoqué l’émergence d’une conscience identitaire et d’actes de résistance culturelle. Or, depuis ses débuts, la revendication de l’appartenance au groupe linguistique néwar et, souvent, de sa défense, se double chez ses acteurs d’un rattachement personnel à la religion bouddhiste, sans que cette double appartenance soit pour autant mise en avant dans les discours.La mise en regard de la situation actuelle de la vitalité de la langue et de celle du bouddhisme dans cette population vise d’une part à documenter l’étude des relations entre langue et religion, et d’autre part à proposer l’application d’outils d’évaluation de la vitalité linguistique à celle de la vitalité religieuse. C’est également une confirmation de la nécessité qu’il y a à mettre au jour et à conceptualiser les relations entre la langue et les autres dynamismes sociaux dont elle semble être, si souvent, à la fois le vecteur et l’enjeu. / In 1769, the Shah dynasty from Western Nepal, promoting Hinduism and speaking Nepali, had conquered the Kathmandu Valley and integrated it into a much wider Nepal. As a consequence, the language, as well as the Buddhist tradition of the local indigenous ethnic group, the Newars, became minority ones. A century later, the State launched a repressive policy towards both Newari language and Buddhism, and the result has been the development of identity awareness, both in the linguistic and in the religious fields, among the Newar intelligentsia, who entered cultural resistance. Therefore, since the beginning, both language and religion have been associated, although activists hardly acknowledge this double-sided feature of their commitments.This study of the current situation of both language and religion vitalities among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley aims primarily at documenting the research on relations between language and religion, and at testing the application of evaluation tools of language vitality to the evaluation of religious vitality. Furthermore, it confirms the necessity we are facing to explore and conceptualize more the links between language and the social dynamics it often sustains but also depends on.

This master’s degree essay aims to analyse the representation of languages in the Linguistic Landscape of two Northern Swedish towns, focusing on the minority languages spoken and originating in the areas. The languages studied are the Sámi languages and Meänkieli, in the two towns of Jokkmokk and Pajala. The study focuses on a quantitative analysis of the use of language on signs in both towns. The study is dealt into two parts, and will examine which languages are present in the Linguistic Landscapes: as well as how multilingual signs present different languages, be they regional minorities or foreign languages.             When looking at the language use in the Linguistic Landscape of both towns, one sees a clear favourability towards Swedish and English over the regional minority languages. This is evident in both top-down and bottom-up signs. Minority languages are generally used non-instrumentally in both areas, i.e., they are used to authenticate a product or an advertisement, rather than display information. / Mae’r traethawd yma yn bwriadu i ddadansoddi cynrychiolaeth ieithoedd yn Nhirwedd Ieithyddol dwy dref yng Ngogledd Sweden, ac yn ffocysu ar yr ieithoedd lleiafrifol a siaradir ac sy’n tarddu o’r ardaloedd. Yr ieithoedd a astudir yw’r ieithoedd Sami a Meänkieli, yn Jokkmokk ac ym Mhajala. Mae’r traethawd yn ffocysu ar ddadansoddiad ansoddol o sut mae ieithoedd yn cael eu defnyddio ar arwyddion yn y ddwy dref. Mae’r traethawd wedi’i rannu i ddau rhan, ac fe fydd hi’n archwilio pa ieithoedd sydd yn bresennol yn Nhirwedd Ieithyddol y ddwy dref: yn ogystal â sut y mai arwyddion amlieithog yn cyflwyno ieithoedd gwahanol, pe boed yn lleiafrifoedd rhanbarthol neu yn ieithoedd dramor.   Pan edrychir ar sut mae ieithoedd yn cael eu defnyddio yn Nhirwedd Ieithyddol y ddwy dref, gwelir ffafriaeth eglur tuag at Swedeg a Saesneg yn hytrach na thuag at yr ieithoedd lleiafrifol rhanbarthol. Mae hi’n amlwg yn arwyddion o’r brig i lawr ac yn arwyddion o’r gwaelod i fyny. Mae ieithoedd lleiafrifol yn cael eu defnyddio yn an-offerynol yn y ddwy ardal, hynny yw maen nhw’n cael eu defnyddio i ddilysu cynnyrch neu hysbysiad, yn hytrach nag i arddangos gwybodaeth. (Walesiska/Kymriska)

This thesis examines evolution in the phonology of Guernesiais, the endangered variety of Norman French indigenous to the Channel Island of Guernsey. It identifies ways in which modern Guernesiais phonology differs from previous descriptions of the variety written between 1870 and 2008, and identifies new patterns of phonological variation which correlate with speaker place of origin within the island. This is accomplished through a combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses of a new corpus of speech data. The relationship between the data and other extralinguistic variables such as age and gender is also explored. The Guernsey 2010 corpus was gathered during linguistic interviews held with forty-nine adult native speakers of Guernesiais between July and September 2010. The interviews featured a word list translation task (English > Guernesiais), a series of socio-biographical questions, and a self-assessment questionnaire which sought to elicit information about the participants’ use of Guernesiais as well as their responses to questions relating to language revitalisation issues. The interviews resulted in over 40 hours of recorded material in addition to a bank of written socio-biographical, behavioural and attitudinal data. Analysis of the phonetically transcribed data revealed that a number of phonological features of Guernesiais have evolved, perhaps owing to greater contact with English or through other processes of language change such as levelling. Shifting patterns of diatopic variation indicate that south-western Guernesiais forms are spreading northwards, and this is echoed in the findings of the socio-biographical data. New evidence of diatopic variation in final consonant devoicing and word-final post-obstruent liquid deletion was also found. This thesis concludes that there is still considerable variation in the pronunciation of modern native speakers of Guernesiais, and that this correlates with place of origin within the island. While northern Guernesiais forms have not disappeared entirely, south-western Guernesiais appears set to become the de facto standard for the variety, especially as the political impetus for revitalisation is generated from this area of the island.

Abstract In my research I look at sound structure variation and change in the Viena dialect of two Karelian villages Jyskyjärvi and Kalevala. I explore how the final syllable A-ending vowel combinations (iA, eA, UA and OA) and long vowels aa and ää are represented in modern Viena dialects and how vowel clusters have changed in pronunciation over a period of thirty years. I study the change in language in real-time: I compare recorded interviews made between 1967–1971 and 2001. Methodologically my research stems from the sociolinguistic research tradition as well as language contact research. The central question is how the closely related Finnish language has perhaps begun to affect the Viena Karelian language. Looking at linguistic changes, one aim is to test morphological and lexical diffusion theories and strive to advance said theories. As regards idiolectic variation, I explore how the language attitudes of the informants affect their language variation and how a social network and its structure can explain the differences in idiolectic variation. The results show that there is a significant amount of variation in Viena Karelian's final syllable A-ending vowel clusters. This may have been affected by the minority position and endangered status of the Karelian language as well as the great changes in the society. Variation and linguistic change is affected by, among other things, morphological factors, frequency of lexemes, and the attempt at symmetry of the vowel clusters. In certain vowel clusters the typical variant of Viena dialects has become more common. However, in certain vowel clusters, a contact-initiated variant has increased in popularity. The data also show changes, which seem to have been affected by reasons external to the language (language contact) and reasons internal to the language (emergent systemic change). In this study, the testing of the diffusion theories shows that contact-initiated variants are becoming more common often in the order of an inverted morphotactic hierarchy and more easily taking hold of broad-frequency form groups. Contrary to my expectations, changes spreading from below have not in my data always progressed in the order of morphotactic hierarchy. The progression of language change may be mixed up by the transformation in the nature of the language change. The changes in the lexicon, on the other hand, have primarily progressed according to the hypothesis that changes spreading from below first affect the most frequently used vocabulary and changes spreading from above first affect the less used part of the vocabulary. The results of individual differences in variation show that the wide spread use of certain variants can be explained by the structure of the social network and the network members' influence on each other. However, social networks alone cannot be used to explain language change. Instead, the results of the study show that attitudes towards language and a person's ethnic loyalty affect the language choices made. Contact-induced shifts are generally more frequent in those informants' language to whom Finnish is a more enticing prestige language than Karelian. / Tiivistelmä Tarkastelen tutkimuksessani kahdessa karjalaiskylässä, Jyskyjärvellä ja Kalevalassa, puhuttavan vienalaismurteen äännerakenteen variaatiota ja muuttumista. Selvitän, miten jälkitavujen A-loppuiset vokaaliyhtymät (iA, eA, UA ja OA) sekä kaksoisvokaalit aa ja ää edustuvat nykyvienalaismurteissa ja miten vokaalijonojen edustus on muuttunut 30 vuodessa. Kielen muuttumista tutkin reaaliajassa: vertailen toisiinsa 1970-luvun taitteessa ja 2000-luvun taitteessa tallennettujen haastattelujen kieltä. Lähtökohdiltaan työni liittyy sekä sosiolingvistiseen tutkimusperinteeseen että kielikontaktitutkimukseen. Keskeinen kysymys on, miten vienankarjalan läheinen sukukieli, suomi, vaikuttaa nykyvienankarjalaan. Kielenmuutosten seuraamisessa yksi tavoite on myös testata morfologisen ja leksikaalisen diffuusion teorioita sekä pyrkiä kehittämään mainittuja teorioita eteenpäin. Variaation idiolekteittaisen tarkastelun kohdalla selvitän, miten informanttien kieliasenteet vaikuttavat heidän kielelliseen variaatioonsa ja pystyvätkö sosiaalinen verkko ja sen rakenne selittämään variaation idiolekteittaisia eroja. Tulokset osoittavat, että variaatio vienankarjalan jälkitavujen A-loppuisissa vokaalijonoissa on erittäin runsasta. Tähän lienevät vaikuttaneet karjalan kielen vähemmistöasema ja uhanalaisuus sekä suuret yhteiskunnalliset muutokset. Variaatiota ja kielenmuutoksia ovat säädelleet muun muassa morfologiset tekijät, lekseemien taajuus sekä jälkitavujen vokaalijonojen pyrkimys symmetriaan. Eräissä vokaalijonoissa vienalaismurteiden tyypillisin variantti on alkanut yleistyä, ja eräissä vokaalijonoissa taas kontaktilähtöinen variantti on lisännyt suosiotaan. Aineistossani on havaittavissa myös muutoksia, joihin lienevät vaikuttaneet sekä kielenulkoiset syyt (kielikontakti) että kielensisäiset syyt (orastava systeeminmuutos). Tässä työssä diffuusioteorioiden testaaminen on osoittanut, että kontaktilähtöiset variantit yleistyvät kielessä usein käänteisessä morfotaktisen hierarkian mukaisessa järjestyksessä ja tarttuvat herkemmin suurtaajuisiin muotoryhmiin. Sitä vastoin alhaalta leviävät muutokset eivät ole aineistossani aina edenneet morfotaktisen hierarkian mukaisessa järjestyksessä, kuten olen olettanut. Muutoksen muotoryhmittäistä etenemistä saattaakin "sekoittaa" muutoksen luonteen muuttuminen. Lekseemeittäin muutokset ovat edenneet pääosin hypoteesini mukaisesti: alhaalta leviävät muutokset ovat tarttuneet ensin sanaston suurtaajuiseen osaan ja ylhäältä leviävät muutokset ensin sanaston pientaajuiseen osaan. Tulokset variaation yksilöllisistä eroista osoittavat, että eräiden varianttien taaja käyttö selittyy sosiaalisen verkon rakenteesta ja verkon jäsenten vaikutuksesta mutta sosiaaliset verkot yksinään eivät pysty kielen vaihtelua selittämään. Sen sijaan tulokset viittaavat siihen, että kieliasenteet ja ihmisen etninen lojaalisuus vaikuttavat siihen, millaisia kielellisiä valintoja hän tekee. Kontaktilähtöiset innovaatiot ovat monin kohdin yleisempiä sellaisten informanttien kielessä, joille suomi on karjalaa vetovoimaisempi prestiisikieli.

L’efficience organisationnelle résulte d’une myriade de microdécisions prises au plus près possible du lieu et du temps d’où émerge la perturbation contextuelle. Le Toyota Production System, au niveau du management, ou l’essor d’Apple Corporation, au niveau des outils pratiques de productivité individuelle, témoignent de cette évolution où la pensée n’est plus séparée de l’action. A preuve, les itinéraires des principaux acteurs de la révolution numérique : les fondateurs de Linux, de Yahoo!, de Wikipédia, d’Amazon.com, de Google ou de Facebook. Ils ne sont pas partis d’une théorie apprise sur les bancs d’une institution scolaire. Procédant par essais et par erreurs, ils n’ont jamais séparé la pensée de l’action. On retrouve ce pragmatisme vertueux en Bavière, Flandre, Ecosse, Euzkadi, Catalogne, Lombardie, Vénétie… Ces régions jouissent du même type d’autonomie – y compris et surtout au niveau culturel - que les Länders allemands ou les cantons helvétiques. La France jacobine a suivi la voie inverse : éradiquer les langues régionales et minoritaires c’est-à-dire les systèmes de signes demeurés au contact sensoriel des choses. Or aujourd’hui, la montée en puissance de la complexité, en saturant la puissance significative du concept, crée les conditions du retour du signe. A l’heure d’Internet, de la transition énergétique et de la nouvelle phase de la mondialisation qui obligent à penser global pour mieux agir local, le retour du signe est inévitable. Il devrait favoriser des modes de production autonome de sens autorisant les organisations et territoires à s’adapter aux mutations d’un contexte devenu imprévisible. / Organizational efficiency is the result of a myriad of micro decisions taken as close as possible from the place and time at which contextual interference emerges. The Toyota Production System, on the management level, and the boom of the Apple Corporation, on the level of the intuitive tools for personal productivity, demonstrate this evolution where thought and action are no more segregated. Proof is the path taken by the main actors of the digital revolution : the founders of Linux, Yahoo!, Wikipedia, Amazon.com, Google or Facebook. It did not begin from a classroom theory, but by a trial and error approach that never disconnected the mind from the act.This virtuous pragmatism is also found in Bavaria, Flanders, Scotland, Euskadi, Catalonia, Lombardy, Veneto ... Indeed, these regions have an autonomy - including and particularly at the cultural level - similar to that of the German Länder or the Swiss cantons. On the contrary, Jacobin France followed the opposite path: the eradication of regional and minority languages in which sensory contact with things remained in the sign systems.But today, the rise of complexity, even saturating the significant power of the concept itself, brings the conditions for the return of the sign.

La thèse porte sur les processus d’émergence de nouvelles langues et des communautés transfrontalières proto-nationales fondées sur ces langues dans l’Europe occidentale d’aujourd’hui. L’analyse se centre sur le francoprovençal (ou arpitan), parlé entre la France, l’Italie et la Suisse : dans « l’espace autour du Mont Blanc », ainsi que l’identifient ses locuteurs eux-mêmes. Epistémologiquement, il s’agit de la dernière-née des langues gallo-romanes, qui vient s’ajouter à l’opposition traditionnelle langue d’oc vs. langue d’oïl, et qui est en train d’être reconnue comme langue à part entière dans les législations régionales, nationales et européenne. Conçue au croisement de la4sociolinguistique et l’anthropologie, la thèse privilégie les approches de l’analyse critique du discours et celles des études sur le nationalisme. La méthode ethnographique de l’observation participante (le vécu dans les trois pays de la zone francoprovençale) a été complétée par 60 entretiens approfondis d’une durée de 1-3h et un corpus des textes écrits (manifestes, blogs etc.) L’étude met en évidence un fossé entre les pratiques communicatives quotidiennes, avec les sens sociaux qui leur sont attribués, et l’idéologie linguistique et politique. / The thesis examines the current phenomena of the emergence of “new” languages and trans-border proto-national communities in Europe. It is demonstrated how a set of idioms on the borderland between France, Italy and Switzerland, which had been considered as patois, became recognised as a unique “language”: the Francoprovençal language, and the trans-border linguistic space became identified as Arpitania. Conceived as cross-disciplinary, the study combines methods of anthropology and sociolinguistics, drawing more particularly on critical discourse analysis and studies on nationalism. The findings are based on extensive fieldwork in which priority was given to the ethnographic method of participant observation (five months-stay in the Francoprovençal-speaking areas of France, 10 months in those in both Switzerland and Italy). The observation was combined with in-depth sociolinguistic interviews (60 interviews of 1-3 hours in length). Besides, the study includes analysis of written discourse: scientific and journalistic printed sources, manifestos, internet blogs, etc.