It is traditionally accepted that the basis of contractual liability is either consensus, that is the actual meeting of the minds of the contractants, or the reasonable belief by one contractants that there is consensus. In this paper the various approaches to contractual liability are examined. The conclusion that is reached is that the direct application of reliance protecti~n can -effectively serve as the basis of contractual liability in our law today. It is submitted that the elements to found contractual liability are representation or conduct, unducement; a reasonable reliance upon consensus, and detriment or prejudice. It is forcefully argued that although blameworthiness (fault) may play a substantial role in determining whether reliance upon consensus should be protected, it is not the decisive element to the enquiry: rather regard should be had to all the surrounding circumstances relating to the contractual relationship. / Private Law / LL.M.

In the essay, the view of mistakes and disciplinary sanctions within the military aviation and health and medical service, are compared. The comparison shows that military aviation and health and medical service could have several points in common on how mistakes may occur, but that the present view of mistakes is different betwen the sectors. The view of mistakes and disciplinary sanctions is explicit within military aviation, and is based on a clear ideology on how mistakes occur, which is characterised of a systematic approach. Within health and medical service, an explicit and unequivocal ideology on how mistakes occur is missing, but, however, there are implicit ideas about infallibility and perfection. The comparison indicates that the view of mistakes is also, possibly directed by a bureaucratic model (instead of an ideology on mistakes), which aims to legitimacy, but that this may happen on the expense of not taking surrounding circumstances into consideration. In that way there may be a certain contrast in the health and medical service’s present system between rule of law and medical service safety.

[pt] Vivemos num mundo em crise. E essa crise é também cultural. Se o multiculturalismo favorece o diálogo entre inúmeras áreas da cultura, rouba-lhes muitas vezes, a especificidade, dilui suas marcas. E isso acontece, neste momento com a história, com a ficção e a realidade. A concepção de História que decidimos interpretar, nos parecia uma narrativa de estrutura simples, quando esta se revelou uma narrativa de estrutura complexa ao seguir os passos da ficção, oscilando entre a tragédia e o folhetim. Uma história pode ser uma narração histórica ou uma fábula, dependendo de como se conta esta história. O mesmo ocorre com a ficção que pode, muitas vezes, testemunhar a verdade de um fato histórico. Essa aproximação entre estas duas práticas discursivas é o ponto crucial da nossa investigação, verificar como se comportam os discursos histórico e ficcional, ambos fabricados e elaborados pelo fetichismo dos fatos na produção histórico-ficcional. Este trabalho apresenta os resultados de uma pesquisa que se debruçou sobre o viés que deflagra a proximidade das narrativas da História e da Ficção. Enfocou representações sociais e discursivas nas investigações feitas pela análise das obras: A Carta de Caminha em diálogo com o Diário de Bordo de Colombo e Peregrinação de Barnabé das Índias de Mário Cláudio, A Implosão da Mentira de Affonso Romano de Sant Anna, O Conto Da Ilha Desconhecida de José Saramago e O Vendedor de Passados de José Eduardo Agualusa. Investigamos, portanto, vários gêneros literários, tais como: uma carta, enquanto documento histórico, uma poesia, um conto e um romance. Atravessamos o Atlântico dos Séculos XV e XVI até o atual Século XXI, viajando literariamente entre Portugal, Brasil e África. / [en] We live in a world in crisis. And this crisis is also cultural. If multiculturalism encourages the dialogue between different areas of culture, it steals, many times, the specificity, dilutes its marks. And it happens, at this moment, with history, with fiction and reality. The conception of history that we decided to interpret, seemed like a narrative of simple structure, when it revealed to be a narrative of complex structure by following the steps of fiction, oscillating between tragedy and feuilleton. A story can be a historical narrative or a fable, depending on "how you tell" this story. The same occurs with fiction that can, many times, witness the truth of a historical fact. This approximation between these two discursive practices is the crucial point of our research, verifying how historical and fictional discourses behave, both manufactured and elaborated by the fetishism of facts in historical-fiction production. This paper presents the results of a study that bent over the bias that outbreak the proximity of history and fiction narratives. It has focused social and discursive representations in the investigations made by the analysis of the literary works: A Carta de Caminha em diálogo com o Diário de Bordo de Colombo e Peregrinação de Barnabé das Índias by Mário Cláudio, A Implosão da Mentira by Affonso Romano de Sant Anna, O Conto Da Ilha Desconhecida by José Saramago and O Vendedor de Passados by José Eduardo Agualusa. Therefore, we investigated several literary genres, such as: a letter, as a historical document, a poem, a tale and a romance. We crossed the Atlantic in the XV and XVI century until the present century XXI, traveling through literacy between Portugal, Brazil and Africa.

The dissertation thesis is focused on feedback on writing in English lessons, and describes its character and pupil's perception of its comprehensibility. The theoretical part defines feedback as a tool of pedagogical communication, which informs the pupil about the possibilities of improvement and progress and thus shapes pupil's development within the learning process as well as pupil's personality development. The topic of feedback is presented in the context of school assessment and teaching of writing, the issue of error is mentioned as the basis for corrective feedback and an incentive for learning. Also, writing and the specifics of its assessment are discussed. The empirical part, using the qualitative design of the multi-case study, builds on the data obtained by the interviews and the content analysis of the documents. The four case studies of teachers and their pupils illustrate how teachers and pupils perceive (corrective) feedback as a tool of pedagogical communication providing information on the possibilities of improvement and progress. The feedback on writing takes the form of grading (analytical rubrics), corrective feedback in the form of marking mistakes and problematic places in the work, written comments and oral comments when teachers hand the papers over. Pupils see feedback...

Une condamnation pénale définitive ne peut en principe plus être remise en cause. La chose jugée doit en effet être tenue pour vraie. L’adage non bis in idem et les principes de l’autorité et de la force de la chose jugée semblent dès lors interdire de rouvrir le procès pénal. Toutefois, le législateur français prévoit deux procédures distinctes permettant de remettre encause la condamnation prononcée : la révision et le réexamen. Les conditions de mise en oeuvre de ces procédures et leurs spécificités en font des procédures très exceptionnelles. Par la présentation d’éléments nouveaux de fait pour la révision, et de droit pour le réexamen, le requérant peut dans certains cas prétendre à nouvelle étude de son affaire. Cependant cette réouverture ne pourra être décidée que par une juridiction ad hoc et sera de type différent selon le nouveau procès envisagé. De plus, l’issue de ce nouveau procès pourra permettre de maintenir la condamnation en dépit des nouveaux faits présentés ou reconnaître l’innocence du condamné. / Final sentencing in a criminal trial cannot in principle be questioned any more. Indeed the adjudged case has to be considered as definitely settled. The non bis in idem Latin saw and the res judicata tenet thus seem to preclude the re-opening of a criminal trial. And yet, lawgivers put in place two distinct legal processes that enable French citizens to challenge their sentencing: reviewing and re-hearing. The conditions for carrying out these processes and their own specifities make these proceedings quite exceptional. Through the presentation of new evidence for reviewing, and because re-hearing can be considered as of right, convicted people may in some cases get a new trial. Nevertheless only an ad hoc jurisdiction can decide upon a new hearing and the latter will be of a different kind depending on the new trial at hand. Moreover, the upshot of this new trial will make it possible either to maintain the sentencing notwithstanding new evidence being presented to a new court or to declare the defendant not guilty.

Les personnes morales sont pleinement assujetties à une responsabilité pénale du fait de l'activité médicale à laquelle elles participent. Dotées en effet d'une personnalité morale punissable, il faut également constater que le domaine de l'imputabilité s'étend aux infractions médicales ou apparentées. Toutefois, le mode d'imputation indirect de l'infraction prévu par l'article 121-2 du Code pénal est identifié comme la principale cause du confinement de la responsabilité dans ce domaine. Il apparaît en effet que les professionnels de santé, dont les médecins, ne peuvent commettre une infraction pour le compte de l'entité, ceux-là ne disposant pas de la qualité d'organe ou de représentant requise par le texte. Le mécanisme impose également de rapporter la preuve de l'implication de la figure décisionnelle, ce qui se révèle particulièrement délicat. Aussi, la responsabilité doit être considérée comme inadaptée à la matière médicale. Le déploiement de la responsabilité passera donc par l'application d'un nouveau modèle d'imputation de l'infraction. Le premier, fondé sur une présomption d'implication des organes ou représentants, devra finalement être écarté en raison des nombreuses faiblesses qu'il comporte. Un second modèle, fondé sur une imputation directe de l'infraction et sur l'identification d'une faute médicale fonctionnelle, donnant lieu à une responsabilité fonctionnelle, sera finalement retenu. Un tel choix nécessitera cependant de modifier les termes de l'actuel article 121-2 du Code pénal. / Legal persons are fully subject to criminal responsibility resulting from their activities related to medical matters. Having a punishable legal personality, the scope of imputation covers all crimes in the medical domain and its neighboring crimes. Nevertheless, the indirect mode of liability adopted in article 121-2 of the French Penal Code is considered the main reason of limiting the responsibility in this area. It seems that professionals working in the health domain, including doctors, could not commit a crime for the account of the institution as they are not enjoying the quality of being an organ or representative which is required by the text to engage responsibility of legal persons. This mechanism requires also the proof of the involvement of a figure on the level of decision-making in the institution, something that is particularly sensitive. The responsibility, as such, is to be considered not well adapted to medical matters. The maintenance of a meaningful criminal responsibility calls for the application of a new model of imputing criminal liability for crimes in the medical domain. First to be mentioned is that this new model shall exclude any presumption of involvement of organs or representatives of the health institution ; such a model could be attacked from different angles. Second, the model to be adopted shall depend on direct imputation based on the identification of a functional mistake that leads to functional responsibility. However, it is to be noted that adopting this model requires a modification of the wording of article 121-2 of the French penal code.

The government has indicated that innovation fosters economic growth and is essential to maintaining a competitive position in international markets. Patents are the preferred mechanism by which the Australian Government and other governments encourage their nationals to protect their innovations. The question of the entitlement was raised in several cases in the Federal Court of Australia where there has been a failure to name all of the inventors on a patent grant (non-joinder) or where persons were mis-named as inventors, who were not and consequently have no interest in a grant (rnis-joinder). In both cases, parties who were not themselves daiming an entitlement to the invention, brought objections based on a number of grounds, including entitlement. The results have been the revocation of the patent in the case on the non-joinder of an inventor and in the case of mis-joinder, the preliminary view of a judge of the Federal Court has been, that the patent would be invalid through lack of entitlement. The result is that competitors are permitted to 'exploit' the invention, as the subject matter is not protected by a patent. The implications are far reaching, For example, where a research team in collaboration with another develops an invention but omits the inventive contribution of even one member of one team or includes a person who has not made an inventive contribution in the patent grant, the patent will be invalid. In these circumstances, the author considers that the result produces a disincentive to innovate. Consideration of this area in other jurisdictions reveals that the U.S. and the U.K. have recognised this as an unsatisfactory state of affairs. As a result, Congress in the U.S. made provision in their Patent Code in the early 1950's, that in the case of error or mistake giving rise to a non-joinder or mis-joinder of inventors, the patent would not be invalid but could be rectified by the Director of Patents and Trade Marks (the 'Director'). In the U.K., the Comptroller has powers to deal with a wide variety of cases involving entitlement to ownership of a patent. The situations include but are not limited to cases where some but not all of the persons entitled to the grant have been granted the patent, i.e. non-joinder, or where a person entitled to be granted a patent, has been granted a patent together with a person who is not entitled, i.e. mis-joinder. The thesis will focus on the non-joinder and mis-joinder of inventors, but the U.K. provision addresses a wider field of parties entitled, whether entitled as inventors or on some other basis. In addition, the U.K. and Germany have made provision restricting the persons who are able to challenge a patent on entitlement grounds. This is restricted to those persons having an interest in the patent, rather than open to any person, as is the case in Australia. The Australian decisions have been determined on historic cases dating back to the 17th century. It is timely to consider amendments which will overcome revocation of patents under Australian law, for what is essentially a matter between the persons interested. These amendments will accordingly encourage innovation, particularly in an environment where intellectual property has taken on greater importance and where the identification of the inventor has become more complex as collaborations in research become more common.

Les conventions internationales de droit uniforme du commerce international ont pour but d'adopter un ensemble de règles qui soient communes et directement applicables aux rapports juridiques existant entre les différentes parties à un contrat commercial international. L'uniformité de ces conventions peut cependant être rompue en raison d'interprétations divergentes dont certaines de leurs dispositions font l'objet de la part des différents juges nationaux. C'est en particulier le cas des dispositions relatives à la faute qualifiée dans les conventions internationales de droit uniforme relatives au contrat de transport. Pour réduire les divergences d'interprétation en ce domaine, il a été proposé de changer la formulation de cette faute qualifiée qui après avoir été formulée au moyen d'un standard, l'a donc été au moyen d'une définition. Cette thèse s'est dans un premier temps intéressée à l'étude des résultats obtenus en matière d'uniformité d'interprétation de cette faute qualifiée sous l'empire du standard, puis sous celui de la définition. Cela a permis de mettre en évidence le fait qu'au-delà de la rédaction de la faute qualifiée au moyen d'un standard ou d'une définition, les divergences d'interprétation apparaissaient ou pouvaient apparaître à cause notamment de divers éléments perturbateurs qui ont été identifiés et au sujet desquels un premier niveau de propositions de solutions a été fait. Cependant, ces propositions de solutions, qui consistent globalement à adopter une interprétation en tenant compte des divers éléments perturbateurs de l'uniformité de l'interprétation qui ont été identifiés, doivent être mise en œuvre au moyen de mécanismes dont la création est nécessaire. C'est ce que cette thèse a proposé dans un deuxième temps.En effet, ces mécanismes ont pour objet la délivrance de recommandations interprétatives aux sujet des dispositions conventionnelles faisant l'objet, au moins potentiellement, de divergences d'interprétation. Ces recommandations sont à destination des juridictions des Etats parties aux conventions concernées et bénéficient d'un statut sui generis qui justifie qu'elles soient prises en compte par le juge. Si c'est la faute qualifiée dans les conventions internationales de droit uniforme relatives au contrat de transport qui a servi de support et de fil conducteur pour cette étude, les éléments de solution proposés ont toutefois vocation à s'appliquer, selon le même schéma, dans d'autres domaines que celui du droit des transports, régis par des conventions internationales de droit uniforme du commerce international. / The purpose of international conventions of uniform international trade law is to adopt a set of rules that are common and directly applicable to the legal relationship between the parties to an international commercial contract. The uniformity of these conventions can, however, be broken by divergent interpretations of which some of their provisions are the subject of the various national judges. This is particularly the case of the provisions relating to misconduct described in the international conventions of uniform law relating to the contract of carriage. In order to reduce differences of interpretation in this area, it has been proposed to change the wording of this qualified fault which, after having been formulated by means of a standard, has thus been made by means of a definition. This thesis was at first interested in the study of the results obtained in terms of uniformity of interpretation of this qualified fault under the influence of the standard, then under that of the definition. This made it possible to highlight the fact that beyond the drafting of the qualified fault by means of a standard or a definition, the divergences of interpretation appeared or could appear because of various disruptive elements which have been identified and for which a first level of proposals for solutions has been made. However, these proposals for solutions, which generally consist in adopting an interpretation taking into account the various disruptive elements of uniformity of interpretation that have been identified, must be implemented through mechanisms that are necessary to create. This is what this thesis proposed in a second step. The purpose of these mechanisms is to issue interpretative recommendations on conventional provisions that are the subject of at least potentially divergent interpretations. These recommendations are addressed to the courts of the States Parties to the conventions concerned and enjoy a sui generis status which justifies them being taken into account by the judge.If it is the misconduct described in the international agreements of uniform law relating to the contract of carriage which served as support and guideline for this study, the proposed elements of solution are however intended to apply, according to the same scheme, in other fields than transport law, governed by international conventions of uniform international trade law.

(in English): The work in this diploma contains an analysis of speech accuracy and fluency of Russian speaking and English speaking students of Czech language, based on case studies. For these case studies two Russian speaking students and two English speaking students were chosen to take part. The results were compared to the results of one native Czech speaker. The accuracy and fluency analysis was carried out based on the language principles of Rod Ellis. Within the accuracy analysis, the number of error free clauses and the average number of mistakes per one hundred words were measured. Accuracy of speech is examined through concrete grammatical phenomena like the usage of reflexive particle se/si and the usage of the verb to be in the past tense. The work in this diploma also considers the ability of analysed speakers to switch between language codes and to distinguish features of formal and spoken Czech language (spoken language in informal situations). The fluency of speech is studied based on the speech rate of all analysed speakers by counting the number of syllables per one hundred words. Subsequently, the number of false starts, repetition of words or phrases, the frequency of usage of parasite words and hesitation sounds were also examined. One of the diploma hypothesis is the statement...

This master´s thesis describes the production process in Japanese enterprise Daikin Device Czech Republic s.r.o. with emphasis on the production schedule, equipment and manufacturing system with elements of lean production. According to the production process analysis at the given production line a new solution of the production process has been suggested to increase production efficiency. This conception has been implemented and compared to the production process before, as well as to the assumed production process after increasing the efficiency.