<p>Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy have an elevated risk for thrombosis. Although thrombosis is a common complication in cancer patients, the mechanisms of chemotherapy-induced thrombosis remain unclear. We investigated the procoagulant effects of lung cancer chemotherapy agents (carboplatin, paclitaxel, cisplatin, and gemcitabine) on endothelial cells, A549 cells, and monocytes. We also investigated the <em>in </em>vivo procoagulant effects of the aforementioned chemotherapeutic agents as well as the anti-angiogenic agent bevacizumab. Tissue factor (TF) activity, TF antigen and phosphatidylserine (PS) levels were measured on chemotherapy-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), A549 cells, and monocytes. Treatment of HUVECs, A549 cells, and monocytes with lung cancer single agent and combination chemotherapy resulted in significant increases in TF activity. However, only cisplatin- and gemcitabine- treated monocytes were found to have increased TF antigen levels. PS exposure was increased only on HUVEC and monocytes treated with cisplatin/gemcitabine combination therapy. Interestingly, addition of paclitaxel to carboplatin resulted in reduced levels of PS exposure on monocytes. This study is the first to explore the procoagulant effects of lung cancer chemotherapy agents on monocyte and A549 cell TF activity levels, as well as to investigate the mechanisms by which lung cancer agents may promote TF decryption on these cell lines<strong>.</strong> Our <em>in vivo</em> results demonstrated that treatment of healthy mice with bevacizumab, paclitaxel and carboplatin moderately increased plasma TAT levels in healthy mice. These studies reveal potential mechanisms by which lung cancer chemotherapy may increase the risk of thrombosis. These studies reveal potential mechanisms by which lung cancer chemotherapy agents induce a hypercoagulable state.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a disease of unknown pathogenesis characterized by scarring of the lung and declining respiratory function. Originating from bone marrow, circulating monocytes can be recruited into the lung tissue and polarized toward the alternatively activated (M2) profibrotic macrophage phenotype. Recent literature has shown that cluster of differentiation 14 positive (CD14+) monocytes are more abundant in IPF patient blood and are associated with disease outcome and acute exacerbation. Additionally, a 52-gene risk profile from peripheral blood mononuclear cells for outcome prediction in IPF was recently published. Here, we began by characterizing macrophages in human IPF lung tissue. We then assembled a biobank and examined transcriptomic characteristics of blood-derived circulating monocytes from IPF patients. Various histological assessments were completed on a tissue microarray including lung biopsies from 24 IPF patients and 17 controls, to characterize M2 macrophage expression in human tissue. Whole blood samples were collected from 50 IPF patients and 12 control subjects. CD14+ monocytes were isolated and mRNA was extracted for bulk RNA sequencing. Data were analyzed for differential expression (DE), and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was performed to examine enrichment of the previously published 52-gene risk profile in our dataset. We found that M2 macrophage expression was increased in IPF lung tissue compared to controls. CD14+ monocyte levels were significantly elevated in IPF patients in our cohort compared to control participants, and was negatively correlated with forced vital capacity (FVC). DE analysis comparing IPF and control monocytes yielded a 35-gene signature, with 16 up-regulated genes and 19 down-regulated genes. When comparing the signature related to long transplant-free survival from the published dataset to our data, GSEA demonstrated that this signature is enriched in donors from our dataset, supporting concurrence between the meanings of the two datasets. Overall, these results provide insight to identify targets to modulate monocyte/macrophage function in IPF and potentially affect progressive disease. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a disease of unknown cause that results in excessive scarring of the lungs and progressive impairment in lung function. We believe that white blood cells called monocytes and macrophages play a key role in the development and progression of this disease. Overall, it is thought that monocytes, which circulate in the blood, enter the lung tissue and become macrophages. These macrophages then lead to the formation of scar tissue, which is characteristic to IPF. In order to better understand how these cells contribute to IPF, we studied their properties in blood and lung biopsies from IPF patients. We found significant differences between monocytes/macrophages in IPF than those in healthy controls, that may help explain disease progression. We hope that these findings will provide insight into causes of the IPF, and potential avenues for therapeutic intervention.

H. somni is capable of forming a prominent biofilm, and luxS is known to play an important role in biofilm formation through quorum sensing, but has also been postulated to function in gene regulation. In order to further study the function of H. somni LuxS, mutants 2336::TnluxS and 2336::TnuspE were identified from a bank of mutants generated with EZ-Tn5 <KAN-2>Tnp transposome (EpiCentre). The 2336::TnluxS and 2336::TnuspE mutants were highly attenuated in mice, but only 2336::TnuspE was deficient in biofilm formation. However, the electrophoretic profiles of the LOS and serum sensitivity of both mutants were substantially altered compared to the parent strain, but exopolysaccharide production during biofilm formation also only decreased in 2336::TnuspE. The altered phenotypes were partially restored in complemented recombinant clones obtained using shuttle vector pHS649S. To clarify whether luxS regulates the expression of various virulence genes, mRNA from both the parent strain and 2336::TnluxS was sequenced. It was determined that the transcription level of 53 genes in 2336::TnluxS and 42 genes in 2336::TnuspE in planktonic form were changed. In biofilm, 320 genes in 2336::TnluxS and 230 genes in 2336::TnuspE were differentially regulated compared to biofilm formed by strain 2336. The immunogloblin binding protein A (IbpA) of H. somni is known to be cytotoxic to phagocytic cells. In this study, we found that strains with a mutation in ibpA were less capable of early replication in monocytes. The IbpA protein concentrated from the culture supernatant of strain 2336 facilitated the intracellular survival of strain 129Pt, which lacks IbpA. However, the ability of several ibpA mutants to resist intracellular killing was not significantly impaired by 48 h post-infection. Two transposon mutants 2336::TnluxS and 2336::TnuspE replicated in monocytes in a similar manner as the ibpA mutants. Confocal microscopy revealed that the intracellular-replicable strains (2336, 64Vc, 2336::TnluxS, 2336::TnuspE and the ibpA mutants) prevented the acidification of the bacterial-containing phagosome and the expression of lysosome marker LAMP-2, which may facilitate survival of H. somni in monocytes. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was developed to detect bovine antibodies to the H. somni exopolysaccharide that is formed during biofilm formation. When an index value of 0.268 was used the sensitivity of the assay for experimentally- and naturally-infected calves was 90.5% at 3 weeks post-infection, and the specificity of the assay for healthy calves was 92.5%. The EPS ELISA may aid in identifying calves with diseases due to H. somni. / Ph. D.

Thesis advisor: Welkin Johnson / HIV-associated comorbidities including neurological disorders (HAND) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) persist in people living with HIV (PLWH) regardless of adherence to antiretroviral therapies (ART). The development of these comorbidities correlates with increased monocyte/macrophages activation and accumulation. Studies report that the development of CVD and HAND are connected in PLWH, but few studies have examined the roles that monocyte/macrophages activation have in their co-development. We first asked how frequently CD8+ T lymphocyte depleted, SIV-infected rhesus macaques with AIDS co-developed cardiac pathology and SIV encephalitis (SIVE) compared to animals that developed CVD or SIVE alone, and animals with no significant cardiac pathology (NSF) and SIV with no encephalitis (SIVnoE) (Chapter 2). We sought to determine whether animals with concomitant CVD and SIVE had more monocyte activation, cardiac macrophages accumulation, and productively infected SIV-RNA+ and SIV- gp41+ cells in the heart and brain compared to animals with CVD or SIVE alone, and animals with NSF and SIVnoE. We found that animals with AIDS co-developed CVD and SIVE more frequently than animals developed CVD or SIVE alone, and NSF and SIVnoE. Animals with CVD and SIVE had increased biomarkers of monocyte activation, cardiac macrophages inflammation, and productively infected macrophages in the brain. We found that the quantity of SIV-RNA+ cells in the heart was sparse compared to the brain. When detected, cardiac SIV-RNA+ cells are CD68+ and CD206+ cardiac macrophages. Levels of plasma soluble CD163 (sCD163) correlated with plasma galectin-3 (Gal-3), galectin-9, and interleukin-18 (IL-18), more so than plasma viral load. We then assessed cardiac tissues from PWLH with HIV encephalitis (HIVE) and HIV no encephalitis (HIVnoE). We found that PLWH with HIVE had more cardiac inflammation and fibrosis than PLWH with HIVnoE. These findings indicate that CVD and HAND pathogenesis are connected, and that the level of myeloid cell activation correlates with the development and severity of concomitant CVD and HAND. The findings from this study emphasize the importance that macrophages accumulation has in developing AIDS-related comorbidities. Our findings highlight the importance of targeting monocyte/macrophages activation and accumulation in future HIV therapies. The persistence of CVD in the post-ART era suggests that ART successfully inhibits AIDS pathogenesis and HIV replication, but fails to block monocyte activation and macrophages accumulation correlated with CVD pathogenesis. We hypothesize that the optimal therapeutic approach for HIV-infection includes blocking AIDS pathogenesis and viral replication, and inhibiting monocyte/macrophages activation. Methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone (MGBG) is a polyamine biosynthesis inhibitor selectively taken up by monocytes and macrophages. MGBG treatment blocks monocyte/ macrophages activation in vitro, AIDS pathogenesis, and decreases inflammation in cardiac and brain tissues of SIV- infected rhesus macaques. We asked whether animals treated with ART and adjunct MGBG (ART+MGBG) had an additive decrease in monocyte activation and turnover, cardiac macrophages inflammation and collagen deposition compared to animals on ART, and untreated animals (Chapter 3). We found that animals on ART+MGBG had lower percentages of cardiac collagen deposition than animals on ART. Animals on ART, and ART+MGBG did not develop AIDS, and had decreased cardiac inflammation and collagen, and monocyte activation and turnover compared to untreated animals. Finally, we identified two populations of Gal-3 expressing (Gal-3+) cells in the heart, CD163+ Gal-3+ cardiac macrophages and CD163- Gal-3+ cells. Animals on ART, and ART+MGBG had decreased numbers of CD163+ Gal-3+ cardiac macrophages compared to untreated animals. All animals had similar numbers of CD163- Gal-3+ cells, and low frequencies of SIV-RNA+ cardiac macrophages regardless of treatment. These data suggests that blocking AIDS pathogenesis with ART, and ART+MGBG correlates with decreased monocyte activation and cardiac inflammation and collagen deposition. Overall, we did not find an additive effect in animals on ART+MGBG compared to animals on ART. Our findings show how targeting monocyte/macrophages activation with ART+MGBG blocks AIDS pathogenesis and decreases cardiac macrophages inflammation. This study demonstrates the advantages of therapeutic strategies blocking myeloid cell activation in conjunction with ART. / Thesis (MS) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Biology.

Clostridium perfringens is the causative agent of gas gangrene. A lethal infection in mice requires a large inoculum suggesting that the immune system is involved in inhibiting disease. Human monocytic cells and neutrophils killed C. perfringens in vitro when complement was present. Macrophages and neutrophils co-localized with C. perfringens in vivo when bacterial numbers were low. Depletion of neutrophils and monocytes in mice revealed that monocytic cells play a role in inhibiting C. perfringens gas gangrene in mice infected with an intermediate dose. C. perfringens can persist in the tissues and this could be mediated by persistence within macrophages. To examine if the toxin perfringolysin O (PFO) could mediate this, less active variants of PFO were used to examine what occurs between phagosomal escape and cell lysis. The mutant forms of PFO did mediate phagosomal escape in macrophages and were found within macrophages at higher numbers than wild-type C. perfringens. Our data were preliminary but may indicate that less active PFO mediates intracellular persistence. To investigate the role of sialidase in C. perfringens gas gangrene we made nanI-, nanJ-, and nanI-/nanJ- mutants. We observed that NanI is responsible for the majority of sialidase activity of C. perfringens strain 13, that NanJ is an extracellular sialidase, and that these genes are transcriptionally regulated by sialic acid. Murine infection trials revealed that these sialidases may be protective for mice during infection. In conclusion, murine monocytes inhibit disease onset and C. perfringens sialidase enhances mouse survival. However, the toxin PFO if less active promotes the survival of C. perfringens with macrophages. / Master of Science

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2013-2014. / La rupture de la barrière hémoencéphalique (BHE) ainsi que l’infiltration cellulaire sont des évènements pathophysiologiques caractéristiques de la sclérose en plaques et de son modèle animal, l’encéphalomyélite autoimmune expérimentale (EAE). Cependant, leur relation avec l’évolution de l’EAE est obscure, notamment car les préparations histologiques standards recquièrent le sacrifice des animaux et nous privent d’informations cruciales quant à l’initiation, au développement et à la progression de la maladie. Nous utilisons le modèle EAE chez la lignée de souris lys-GFP ki, chez laquelle les cellules myéloïdes (i.e. neutrophiles et monocytes) expriment eGFP. De l’imagerie intravitale est effectuée à des moments précis, ce qui permet l’étude de l’infiltration cellulaire en plus de l’évaluation de l’intégrité de la barrière hémo-encéphalique (BHE) au cours de la pathologie. Les séances d’imagerie non-terminales offrent un contexte temporel considérable, puisqu’il est possible de suivre le développement de la maladie chez un animal qui a été précédemment imagé. La première étape a donc consisté à établir que la chirurgie et la séance d’imagerie n’avaient aucune influence sur le développement de l’EAE chez les animaux expérimentaux. Les résultats obtenus à l’aide d’imagerie intravitale tendent à démontrer qu’un affaiblissement de la BHE envers les molécules de petite taille (760 Da) est corrélé à l’infiltration de cellules GFP-positive dans la moelle épinière. Il est d’autant plus intéressant de constater que cette invasion cellulaire arrive en même temps que l’apparition des symptômes cliniques chez les animaux atteints d’EAE. Nous avançons l’hypothèse que les neutrophiles sont les cellules myéloïdes responsables de brèches initiales dans la BHE, qui influençent son intégrité aux stades précoces de la maladie. Des expériences de déplétion envers les neutrophiles ont donc été effectuées chez des animaux EAE afin de confirmer notre hypothèse. Les résultats suggèrent que les neutrophiles influencent l’initiation de la maladie et sa sévérité totale, en plus d’être intimement liés à l’état de la BHE tôt dans la pathologie. / Blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption and immune cell infiltration are early pathophysiological hallmarks of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Their relationship with the course of EAE remains unclear, however, notably because histological tissue preparations involve sacrifice and inherently result in the loss of crucial information regarding the initiation or development and progression of the disease. We use the EAE model in the lys-GFP ki mouse strain, in which blood-borne myeloid cells (i.e. neutrophils and monocytes) express eGFP. Intravital two-photon microscopy is performed at selected time points, enabling the investigation of cellular infiltration together with the assessment of the blood- barrier (BBB) integrity over the course of the pathology. Non-terminal imaging sessions offer extensive temporal context as it is possible to follow the development of the disease in an animal which has been previously imaged. One can appreciate the advantage of such a method as it is possible to relate, in the same animal, previous observations with clinical outcome. The first step thus consisted in establishing that the surgery and imaging session did not affect the development of EAE in experimental animals. Results obtained demonstrate that the permeability of the BBB to small molecular tracers (760 Da) correlates with the infiltration of GFP-positive myeloid cells into the spinal cord parenchyma. Interestingly, this cellular invasion is reminiscent of the appearance of clinical symptoms displayed by EAE animals. We put forward the hypothesis that neutrophils are the myeloid cells responsible for initial breaches in the BBB, influencing the latter’s integrity at early stages of the disease. Neutrophil depletion experiments have thus been performed in EAE mice in order to confirm this hypothesis. Results suggest that neutrophils influence the initiation and total severity of the disease, as well as being intimately linked to the status of the BBB early in the pathology.

L’infection par le VIH-1 (Virus de l’Immunodéficience Humaine de type I) est caractérisée par une réplication virale persistante, une activation chronique du système immunitaire, une déplétion des cellules T CD4+ et de plusieurs dysfonctionnements immunitaires qui sont observés même chez les cellules qui ne sont pas ciblées par le virus telles que les cellules B. Plusieurs cytokines et facteurs de croissance, qui sont augmentées dans le sérum des individus infectés par le VIH-1, ont été suggérés de déclencher directement et/ou indirectement l'activation des cellules B, et l'un d'eux est BAFF (B cell activating factor). BAFF est un composant essentiel de l'homéostasie des lymphocytes B mais sa surproduction résulte en une hyperplasie des cellules B, lymphoprolifération, une hypergammaglobulinémie et des symptômes d’autoimmunité. Les différentes études présentées dans cette thèse convergent vers l'objectif général de mieux caractériser les mécanismes qui mènent à la surproduction de BAFF par les monocytes primaires humains et les macrophages dérivés des monocytes dans le contexte de l’infection par le VIH-1. Nous démontrons que le VIH-1 cause la sécrétion de BAFF dans les monocytes par un processus dépendant de l’interféron (IFN) de type-I. De plus, nous avons identifié les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes (CDP) comme la source de l’IFN de type-I dans nos cultures de monocytes, ce qui démontre que l’interaction entre ces cellules est nécessaire pour la production de BAFF générée par le VIH-1. En plus, nous avons aussi démontré que le VIH-1 régule la production de BAFF dans les macrophages et ce processus nécessite une infection productive par le virus et est influencé par le statut du phénotype cellulaire mais est indépendant de la transduction de signal par les récepteurs de type Toll, l’IFN de type-I ainsi que l'action de la protéine virale Nef. En résumé, cette thèse offre de nouvelles connaissances dans les mécanismes d'augmentation de BAFF dans le contexte de l’infection par le VIH-1. Celles-ci pourraient être pertinentes dans le développement de thérapies qui pourraient aider à restaurer la fonctionnalité normale du compartiment des cellules B chez les sujets infectés par le VIH-1. / HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus I) infection is characterized by persistent viral replication, chronic immune activation, CD4+ T cell depletion and several immune dysfunctions that are observed even in cells that are not targeted by the virus such as B lymphocytes. Some B-cell abnormalities observed in HIV-1-infected individuals include hypergammaglobulinemia, nonspecific B-cell activation, class switching, increased cell turnover, breakage of tolerance as well as a loss of the capacity to generate and maintain memory, among others. Several cytokines and growth factors that are increased in the serum of HIV-1-infected individuals have been suggested to directly and/or indirectly trigger B-cell activation, and one of these is the B-cell-activating factor (BAFF). BAFF is an essential component of B-cell homeostasis but excess production results in B-cell hyperplasia, lymphoproliferation, hypergammaglobulinemia, and symptoms of autoimmunity. The mechanisms of BAFF upregulation in the context of HIV-1 infection are not fully understood and no previous studies have addressed the ability of fully competent HIV-1 to induce BAFF production by myeloid cells. The different studies presented in this thesis converge to the general objective of better characterizing the mechanisms underlying BAFF upregulation by primary human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages in the context of HIV-1 infection. We show here that HIV-1 drives BAFF secretion in monocytes by a type-I interferon (IFN)-dependent process. Moreover, we identified plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) as the cellular source of this type-I IFN-directed modulatory effect in our monocyte cultures, demonstrating that a pDC/monocyte interplay is required for the HIV-1-induced BAFF production. In addition, we provide evidence that HIV-1 upregulates BAFF production in monocyte-derived macrophages and this process relies on productive virus infection, which is itself influenced by the cell phenotype status, and is independent of Toll-like receptors and type-I IFN signal transduction as well as the action of Nef. Altogether, this doctoral project provides new insights for the increased BAFF levels observed during HIV-1 infection. These findings might be relevant for the design of therapies that could help restore the functionality of the B-cell compartment in HIV-1-infected individuals.

L’infection du système nerveux central (SNC) par le virus herpès simplex 1 (VHS-1) peut mener au développement d’une encéphalite herpétique qui représente l’infection cérébrale sporadique la plus répandue dans les pays développés. Cette infection dévastatrice a une prévalence de 1/250 000 individus, et atteint un taux de mortalité de 30% malgré l’administration d’un traitement antiviral à base d’acyclovir. De plus, la majorité des patients qui survivent à l’infection conservent des séquelles neurologiques graves et permanentes. Il est suggéré, qu’en plus des dommages causés par la réplication virale, la réponse immunitaire inflammatoire induite par l’infection serait responsable de l’exacerbation de l’encéphalite herpétique. Cette réponse inflammatoire est initiée par les macrophages résidents du SNC, nommés microglies. Dans certains désordres neurologiques, Il est proposé qu’en plus des microglies, les monocytes sanguins pourraient infiltrer le SNC et participer à la réponse immunitaire. Les connaissances concernant le recrutement des monocytes périphériques au SNC et leur rôle dans l’élaboration de la réponse immunitaire durant l’encéphalite herpétique sont très limitées. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes impliqués dans cette réponse dirigée contre l’infection du cerveau par le VHS-1 pourrait permettre d’identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques et mener au développement de nouvelles stratégies combinant des antiviraux et des agents immunomodulateurs pour contrôler à la fois la propagation du virus et l'état inflammatoire dans le SNC. Les travaux présentés dans le cadre de cette thèse s’intéressent à l’implication des monocytes périphériques recrutés au niveau du cerveau dans la réponse immunitaire innée développée dans un modèle murin d’encéphalite herpétique. Pour atteindre nos objectifs, nous avons d’abord utilisé des souris chimériques dont les précurseurs myéloïdes dérivés de la moelle osseuse et les leucocytes sanguins expriment la protéine fluorescente verte (GFP pour «green fluorescent protein»). Ce modèle nous a principalement permis de distinguer les macrophages d’origine hématopoïétique des microglies résidentes du SNC car il n’existe aucun marqueur naturel permettant de différencier ces deux populations cellulaires. Cette stratégie nous a aidé à mieux caractériser la cinétique d’infiltration des monocytes, leur localisation dans le cerveau, et leur participation à la réponse immunitaire suite à l’infection du SNC par le VHS-1. La deuxième partie des travaux porte sur les mécanismes impliqués dans le recrutement de ces monocytes et dans le contrôle de l’état inflammatoire au niveau du SNC durant l’encéphalite herpétique. Plus précisément, les expériences réalisées s’intéressent aux rôles de la signalisation via les récepteurs de chimiokines CCR2 et CX3CR1, exprimés à la surface des monocytes sanguins et des microglies, dans la protection ainsi que dans le recrutement des deux sous-types de monocytes sanguins, soient les monocytes «inflammatoires» et «patrouilleurs», au cours de l’encéphalite herpétique. Nos résultats ont montré pour la première fois que les monocytes sanguins infiltraient le SNC pour donner naissance à des macrophages ayant le même profil que les microglies résidentes et que ces cellules participaient à la réponse immunitaire suite à l’infection par le VHS-1. Nous avons également démontré, en utilisant des souris chimériques ayant des déficiences compartimentées en récepteurs CX3CR1 et CCR2 au niveau du SNC au niveau du système hématopoïétique, que les voies de signalisation via CX3CR1 au niveau des cellules résidentes du cerveau et de CCR2 au niveau des cellules hématopoïétiques étaient importantes pour la survie des souris, pour le contrôle de la réplication virale ainsi que pour contenir la réponse inflammatoire cérébrale durant l’encéphalite herpétique expérimentale. / Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is the main cause of sporadic viral encephalitis in developed countries with an annual incidence of 1/250 000 individuals per year. Despite the use of acyclovir that aimed at blocking virus replication, the mortality rate associated with HSV encephalitis (HSE) is still high (i.e., 30%), with the majority of surviving patients developing severe neurological sequelae. It is believed that the high mortality rate and neurological disorders attributable to HSE could involve both virally- and immune-induced damages of the central nervous system (CNS). The inflammatory response is initiated by the resident macrophages of the brain, namely microglia. In addition, blood leukocytes, particularly monocytes, are thought to infiltrate the CNS and contribute to the control of viral infection together with microglia. However, it is also argued that these cells may also amplify the inflammatory response, thereby contributing to brain damages. Knowledge concerning the recruitment of peripheral monocytes to the CNS and their role in the immune response during HSE is limited. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in their dynamic of recruitment might lead to the identification of new therapeutic targets and the development of new strategies combining antiviral agents and immunomodulatory molecules to better control both HSV replication as well as the inflammatory environment in the CNS. The studies presented in this thesis are intended to better evaluate the involvement of monocytes-derived macrophages, together with microglia, in the cerebral innate immune response during experimental HSE. To achieve our goals, we first used chimeric mice in which bone marrow progenitor cells and blood leukocytes express the green fluorescent protein (GFP). This model allowed us to better characterize the kinetics of infiltration of blood monocytes into the CNS, their distribution in different anatomical areas of the brain and their involvement in the immune response during experimental HSE. The second part of the work focuses on the mechanisms involved in the recruitment of monocytes into the CNS and in the control of the inflammatory state in mouse brain following HSV-1 infection. More precisely, experiments aimed at characterizing the role of signaling pathways through chemokine receptors CCR2 and CX3CR1, expressed on the surface of blood monocytes and microglia, in protecting and modulating the recruitment of the two blood monocytes subtypes, namely the "inflammatory" and "patrolling" monocytes, during HSE. To achieve this aim, we used chimeric mouse models of CCR2- and CX3CR1-deficient animals, in which the lack of either receptor was restricted to the hematopoietic system (blood monocytes) or the CNS (microglia). Our results showed that blood monocytes are recruited to the CNS following HSV-1 infection and give rise to microglia-like macrophages. These cells are involved in the immune response together with microglia by performing immunological functions including phagocytosis and antigen presentation. Furthermore, we showed that CX3CR1 and CCR2 expressed on cells of the CNS and in the hematopoietic system, respectively, are important for mouse survival, viral replication control and in maintaining an appropriate inflammatory response during experimental HSE.

Le virus herpès simplex de type 1 (VHS-1) est la principale cause d'encéphalite virale sporadique dans les pays développés. L'incidence annuelle de l'encéphalite herpétique est de 2 à 4 cas par million d'individus. Cette infection dévastatrice peut atteindre des taux de mortalité de 30% malgré l'administration d'un traitement antiviral à base d'acyclovir. De plus, chez certains patients qui survivent à l'infection, cette maladie peut laisser des séquelles neurologiques graves et permanentes. Le VHS-1 induit une forte réponse inflammatoire cérébrale par l'activation des composantes de la réponse immunitaire innée qui, par la suite, met en place la voie de déclenchement de la réponse adaptative. Bien que cette réponse inflammatoire soit importante pour contrôler la replication du virus, elle peut, si elle est exacerbée, causer des dommages au niveau du système nerveux central (SNC). La compréhension du rôle joué par les microglies (macrophages résidents dans le SNC) et par les monocytes périphériques (dans le sang) recrutés au niveau du cerveau pour élaborer cette réponse immunitaire innée pourrait permettre d'identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques. Celles-ci pourraient ouvrir la porte au développement de nouvelles stratégies combinant un antiviral à un agent immunomodulateur pour contrôler à la fois la propagation du virus et l'état inflammatoire du SNC au cours de l'encéphalite herpétique. Les travaux présentés dans le cadre de ce mémoire portent sur l'étude de l'implication des microglies et des monocytes périphériques recrutés au niveau du cerveau dans la réponse immunitaire innée développée dans un modèle murin d'encéphalite herpétique. Pour atteindre nos objectifs, nous avons d'abord utilisé des souris chimériques dont les précurseurs myéloïdes périphériques dérivés de la moelle osseuse expriment la protéine fluorescente verte (GFP). Nous avons ensuite évalué l'impact de la déficience de deux récepteurs de chimiokines exprimés à la surface des monocytes/macrophages, CCR2 et CX3CR1, sur la survie des souris ainsi que sur le recrutement des deux sous-types de monocytes sanguins, les monocytes "inflammatoires" et "circulants", au cours de l'encéphalite herpétique.

La réaction inflammatoire est un processus complexe et essentiel à la défense de l'hôte contre l'infection et le dommage tissulaire. Le déclenchement de cette réponse s'effectue suite à l'activation des récepteurs «Toll-like» (TLRs) par des motifs moléculaires associés aux pathogènes (PAMPs). Cette activation entraine la sécrétion de médiateurs inflammatoires solubles qui servent à recruter les cellules immunes au site de l'infection. Les neutrophiles sont les leucocytes circulants les plus abondants et sont les premiers arrivés au site inflammatoire/infectieux afin d'éliminer les micro-organismes. Le recrutement du neutrophile est un processus finement régulé qui nécessite d'abord son interaction avec l'endothélium vasculaire pour le franchir et ensuite se rendre au site inflammatoire via un processus appelé chimiotaxie. Au cours de cette dernière décennie, des études ont montré que les nucleotides tels que l'ATP sont relâchés par les cellules activées, lésées et/ou stressées, et tout particulièrement au site inflammatoire où ils agissent comme des signaux de danger ou des motifs moléculaires associés aux dommages (DAMPs). Une fois à la surface des cellules, ils entraînent des réponses immunes via l'activation des récepteurs P2. Durant mes études doctorales, nous avons montré que la relâche et l'action des nucleotides étaient impliquées dans les réponses suscitées par l'activation des TLRs. Plus particulièrement, nous avons mis en évidence un rôle central des nucleotides extracellulaires et de l'activation des récepteurs P2 dans différents mécanismes de contrôle de la migration des neutrophiles en réponse à des PAMPs. Nous avons montré que les nucleotides extracellulaires en activant les récepteurs P2 contrôlent la migration des neutrophiles via la sécrétion de l'interleukine-8 (IL-8) produite par les monocytes humains. Nous avons aussi démontré que la production de l'IL-8 par les monocytes activés par les ligands de TLR2 et TLR4 requiert l'activation concomitante des récepteurs P2 par les nucleotides extracellulaires. De plus, nous avons montré que les nucleotides ne sont pas uniquement impliqués dans la production d'IL-8 mais sont également nécessaires dans la chimiotaxie des neutrophiles induite par l'IL-8. Les études in vitro et in vivo présentées dans ma thèse montrent que les nucleotides extracellulaires contrôlent également la migration transendothéliale des neutrophiles induite par le ligand de TLR4 en agissant sur les cellules endothéliales. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse contribuent à définir de nouveaux mécanismes utilisés par les nucleotides extracellulaires pour réguler le recrutement des neutrophiles lors de la réponse infectieuse et/ou inflammatoire.