O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar o impacto da interação mãe-criança e da experiência de creche para o desenvolvimento infantil nos dois primeiros anos de vida da criança. Participaram do estudo 44 crianças (M=6,4 meses; DP=1,6) e suas mães (M=34,1 anos; DP=5,2) divididos em dois grupos: Grupo Creche (21 crianças que frequentavam a creche) e Grupo Não Creche (23 crianças que não frequentavam a creche). As mães de ambos os grupos apresentavam alta escolaridade (M=17,6 anos; DP=) e renda familiar média de R$ 8.307,95 (DP=6.157). Foram realizadas três fases de coleta de dados (Fase dos 6, 12 e 18 meses de vida). As díades mãe-criança foram filmadas durante interação livre quando se examinou a qualidade da interação através do Maternal Behavior Q-sort, enquanto o desenvolvimento infantil (cognitivo, da linguagem, socioemocional e motor) foi avaliado através das Escalas Bayley III. Por fim, a qualidade da creche foi avaliada pela escala Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. Os resultados revelaram que a escolaridade da mãe se correlacionou positivamente com alguns domínios de interação mãe-criança: Sensibilidade, Eficácia de resposta e Sincronia nas fases dos 12 e 18 meses. No que diz respeito ao impacto da creche para o desenvolvimento infantil, verificou-se um efeito significativo da creche apenas para o desenvolvimento motor, indicando que as crianças que frequentaram a creche tiveram escores mais elevados na Fase dos 18 meses. Ainda com relação à creche, verificou-se que frequentar ou não a creche não interferiu na qualidade da interação mãe-criança. Além disso, os resultados revelaram que alguns domínios da interação mãe-criança mostraram-se significativamente associados ao desenvolvimento infantil, entre eles: Estar ciente dos sinais do filho, Rejeição e Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem, sendo que os dois primeiros interferiram de forma negativa no desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses. Já Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem pareceu beneficiar o desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses, além de apresentar associação positiva com desenvolvimento da linguagem e desenvolvimento motor. Por fim, verificou-se que a qualidade da interação mãe-criança e frequentar ou não a creche, explicaram apenas uma pequena parte da variância do desenvolvimento infantil. É plausível se supor que isto tenha ocorrido em função do curto tempo investigado e pela própria idade das crianças participantes do estudo. / The present study aimed to investigate the impact of mother-child interaction and experience of childcare center for infant development during the first two years of child’s life. The study included 44 children (M = 6.4 months, SD = 1.6) and their mothers (M = 34.1 years, SD = 5.2) divided into two groups: Childcare Center Group (21 children attending the center) and Non- childcare Center Group (23 children who did not attend the center). Three phases of data collection were performed (6, 12 and 18 months of the child's life). The mother-child dyads were videotaped during free play when it were examined the quality of interaction through the Maternal Behavior Q-sort and child development (cognitive, language, social-emotional and motor) was assessed by Bayley Scales III. Finally, the quality of childcare center was assessed by the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. The results revealed that the mother's education was positively correlated with some domains of mother-child interaction: Sensitivity, Response effectiveness and Synchrony at 12 and 18 months. With regard to the impact of childcare center on child development, there was a significant effect of daycare only to motor development, indicating that children who attended day care had higher scores at 18 months. It was found that attend daycare center or not did not affect the quality of mother - child interaction. Furthermore, the results revealed that some domains of mother-child interaction were significantly associated with child development, among them: Awareness, Rejection and Facilitation of exploration and learning, and the first two domains interfered negatively on cognitive development at 18 months. Have Facilitation of exploration and learning seemed to benefit cognitive development at 18 months, in addition to presenting a positive association with the development of language and motor. Finally, it was found that the quality of mother-child interaction and attend daycare center or not explained only a small part of the variance in child development. It is plausible to assume that this has occurred because of the short time investigated and the age of the children in the study.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar o impacto da interação mãe-criança e da experiência de creche para o desenvolvimento infantil nos dois primeiros anos de vida da criança. Participaram do estudo 44 crianças (M=6,4 meses; DP=1,6) e suas mães (M=34,1 anos; DP=5,2) divididos em dois grupos: Grupo Creche (21 crianças que frequentavam a creche) e Grupo Não Creche (23 crianças que não frequentavam a creche). As mães de ambos os grupos apresentavam alta escolaridade (M=17,6 anos; DP=) e renda familiar média de R$ 8.307,95 (DP=6.157). Foram realizadas três fases de coleta de dados (Fase dos 6, 12 e 18 meses de vida). As díades mãe-criança foram filmadas durante interação livre quando se examinou a qualidade da interação através do Maternal Behavior Q-sort, enquanto o desenvolvimento infantil (cognitivo, da linguagem, socioemocional e motor) foi avaliado através das Escalas Bayley III. Por fim, a qualidade da creche foi avaliada pela escala Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. Os resultados revelaram que a escolaridade da mãe se correlacionou positivamente com alguns domínios de interação mãe-criança: Sensibilidade, Eficácia de resposta e Sincronia nas fases dos 12 e 18 meses. No que diz respeito ao impacto da creche para o desenvolvimento infantil, verificou-se um efeito significativo da creche apenas para o desenvolvimento motor, indicando que as crianças que frequentaram a creche tiveram escores mais elevados na Fase dos 18 meses. Ainda com relação à creche, verificou-se que frequentar ou não a creche não interferiu na qualidade da interação mãe-criança. Além disso, os resultados revelaram que alguns domínios da interação mãe-criança mostraram-se significativamente associados ao desenvolvimento infantil, entre eles: Estar ciente dos sinais do filho, Rejeição e Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem, sendo que os dois primeiros interferiram de forma negativa no desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses. Já Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem pareceu beneficiar o desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses, além de apresentar associação positiva com desenvolvimento da linguagem e desenvolvimento motor. Por fim, verificou-se que a qualidade da interação mãe-criança e frequentar ou não a creche, explicaram apenas uma pequena parte da variância do desenvolvimento infantil. É plausível se supor que isto tenha ocorrido em função do curto tempo investigado e pela própria idade das crianças participantes do estudo. / The present study aimed to investigate the impact of mother-child interaction and experience of childcare center for infant development during the first two years of child’s life. The study included 44 children (M = 6.4 months, SD = 1.6) and their mothers (M = 34.1 years, SD = 5.2) divided into two groups: Childcare Center Group (21 children attending the center) and Non- childcare Center Group (23 children who did not attend the center). Three phases of data collection were performed (6, 12 and 18 months of the child's life). The mother-child dyads were videotaped during free play when it were examined the quality of interaction through the Maternal Behavior Q-sort and child development (cognitive, language, social-emotional and motor) was assessed by Bayley Scales III. Finally, the quality of childcare center was assessed by the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. The results revealed that the mother's education was positively correlated with some domains of mother-child interaction: Sensitivity, Response effectiveness and Synchrony at 12 and 18 months. With regard to the impact of childcare center on child development, there was a significant effect of daycare only to motor development, indicating that children who attended day care had higher scores at 18 months. It was found that attend daycare center or not did not affect the quality of mother - child interaction. Furthermore, the results revealed that some domains of mother-child interaction were significantly associated with child development, among them: Awareness, Rejection and Facilitation of exploration and learning, and the first two domains interfered negatively on cognitive development at 18 months. Have Facilitation of exploration and learning seemed to benefit cognitive development at 18 months, in addition to presenting a positive association with the development of language and motor. Finally, it was found that the quality of mother-child interaction and attend daycare center or not explained only a small part of the variance in child development. It is plausible to assume that this has occurred because of the short time investigated and the age of the children in the study.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T13:16:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 1871545 bytes, checksum: 2b36e778be713aae4e221031134a4fe8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Abstract. Autism is classified as a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) characterized by a triad of impairment involving losses in the development of social interaction, communication and imagination. Its etiology is diverse, with varying degrees of impairment, such factors make that the promotion of social interaction of autistic children represents a major challenge. With technological advances, the computer has become as an auxiliary tool in the interactive process, justifying the development of studies that focus on social interaction of autistic children in digital environments. This study aimed to analyze the mother-child autistic interaction in situations of free play and a situation involving the use of a computer. The specific objectives aimed to apprehend maternal conceptions about autism; to identify and compare the communication styles of mother-child autistic in situations of free play and using a computer; and also analyze the strategies used by mothers to stimulate the child's interest in the activities. This is a descriptive study, characterized by a qualitative and quantitative approach with the participation of four mother-child dyads, aged 4-6 years, and used the following instruments: Sociodemographic Questionnaire; Semi-structured interview; Filming in free play and using a computer; and Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). The participants belong to the Autism Parents and Friends Association (ASAS) in Joao Pessoa and the data were collected at their homes. Four film sessions were conducted with each dyad (two in free play and two using a computer), each one with a total duration of 20 minutes, considering the central 10 minutes. The systematic observations of the sessions in conjunction with the semi-structured interviews enabled the development of software for each child that was used in the third and fourth session. For the processing and analyses of the contents brought out from the interviews was used the model of Content Analysis proposed by Bardin. The recordings were transcribed under the rules of Codes for Human Analysis of Transcripts (CHAT) which consists of a transcription system of Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES). It was used categories and subcategories related to maternal communicative styles and communicative behaviours of the child. Among them it was identified continuity, discontinuity and frequency of interactive episodes, considering their co-occurrence and duration. In the analysis of interactions observations among dyads, there were a variety of continuous and discontinuous episodes permeated by maternal strategies to promote child development. The challenge was characterized by the role of the mediator who has to work constantly to stimulate the child to focus to achieve the goal of the program and to be able to perceive the mediator as an intentional agent performing the achievement of triad interaction proposed in this study: mother-child-computer. / Resumo. O autismo é classificado como um Transtorno Invasivo do Desenvolvimento (TID) caracterizado por uma tríade de prejuízos que envolve o comprometimento do desenvolvimento da interação social, da comunicação e da imaginação. Possui etiologia diversa, com graus de comprometimentos variáveis, fatores estes que fazem com que a promoção da interação social de crianças autistas represente um grande desafio. Com o avanço tecnológico, o computador surge como ferramenta auxiliar no processo de interação, justificando o desenvolvimento de estudos que focam a interação social de criança autistas em ambientes digitais. Este trabalho teve como objetivo geral: analisar a interação mãe-criança autista em situações de brincadeira livre e no computador; e objetivos específicos: apreender as concepções maternas sobre o autismo; identificar e comparar os estilos de comunicação da díade mãe-criança autista nas situações de brincadeira livre e computador; e verificar as estratégias utilizadas pelas mães para estimular o interesse da criança nas atividades. Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, caracterizado por uma abordagem qualitativa e quantitativa. Participaram 4 díades mãecriança, com idade entre 4 a 6 anos, e foram utilizados os seguintes instrumentos: Questionário Sociodemográfico; Entrevista Semiestruturada; Filmagem em brincadeira livre e no computador; e a CARS Childhood Autism Rating Scale. Os dados foram coletados nas residências dos participantes pertencentes à Associação dos Pais e Amigos dos Autistas ASAS em João Pessoa. Foram realizadas 4 sessões fílmicas com cada díade (duas de brincadeira livre e duas no computador), cada uma com duração total de 20 minutos, considerando os 10 minutos centrais. As observações sistemáticas das sessões conjuntamente com as entrevistas semi-estruturadas possibilitaram a elaboração de um software para cada criança que era utilizado na terceira e quarta sessão. Para processamento e análise dos conteúdos advindos das entrevistas utilizou-se o modelo de análise temática proposto por Bardin. As filmagens foram transcritas segundo as normas do CHAT Codes for Human Analysis of Transcripts que consiste em um sistema de transcrição do CHILDES Child Language Data Exchange System. Foram elaboradas categorias e subcategorias referentes aos estilos comunicativos maternos e aos comportamentos comunicativos das crianças, sendo identificada a continuidade, descontinuidade e a frequência dos episódios interativos, considerando sua coocorrência e duração. Na análise das observações das interações entre as díades, observou-se uma variedade de episódios contínuos e descontínuos que foram permeados pelas estratégias maternas para promover o desenvolvimento da criança. Percebeu-se que o desafio consiste em fazer com que o mediador esteja em constante trabalho de estimulação da criança para que esta foque sua atenção não apenas no objetivo do programa a ser atingido, mas que seja capaz de perceber o mediador como agente intencional e realize a concretização da tríade de interação que foi proposta no presente estudo: mãe-criança-computador.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T13:16:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ArquivoTotal.pdf: 2881081 bytes, checksum: def5524d8c0d3fd7971e02d5f80b2056 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-06-14 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The Perspective on Language and Social Interaction Scholars emphasizes that the first socially established interactions between a child and an adult are central to the development of linguistic, cognitive, social and affective skills. Studies on infant language development emphasize the presence of typical communication patterns, given that the child s age, cognitive skill and language development all influence the maternal inputs employed. For children with special needs, such as the visually impaired, interaction with the mother is likely to be of a particular kind, given that the first contact, that is, eye contact, is nonexistent. The present longitudinal study evaluated the mother-child with visual impairment interaction, and aimed to determine the degree of infant language development based on their social communication skills. Specifically, the study evaluated the communication behaviors of both mother and infant, identified scenes of joint attention within interactive episodes, and investigated the maternal conception regarding child development. Investigations were made by conducting two case studies concerning two completely blind children (three and four years old) and their mothers. Data collection was made by visiting the residence of the dyads during six distinct stages with two-month intervals between visits. Instruments employed during the study included semi-structured interviews using a digital recorder, assessment of expressive vocabulary list (LAVE), and 12 movies recorded for each dyad. During each stage, two different observational situations were employed: free play and structured. For the latter case, children were oriented to play with previously selected educational toys, suitable for both their age and visual conditions. Interviews were organized into thematic categories, as proposed by Bardin. Furthermore, 10 of the 20 minutes of video available for each situation were transcribed based on the CHAT format using CHILDES software (Child Language Data Exchange System). The CLAN program of the same software provided the necessary frequency and precision of data coding. Categories were elaborated based on the aims of the study, on observation protocols and from similar researches conducted in the field of expertise. The mother of the first dyad proposed that child development requires specific guidance, particularly regarding perceptual functions such as touch and hearing. The LAVE method detected an improvement between the first and last application. During the observations the mother was concerned about promoting child participation on the interactive process. This, in turn, led to an improved self-initiative and a contextualized use of different communication behaviors by the child. A maternal strategy concerning the attentional focus of the child, as well as the mother s report that the child s linguistic development seemed inappropriate for the age, was detected for dyad 2. This was further supported by both the LAVE and the observations, which evidenced the difficulty of the child to communicate appropriately, using decontextualized words and rigid verbal expressions. In general, the present study emphasizes the importance of considering the situational context and observing the members of the dyad by means of bidirectional perspectives, given that one s behavior influences the other. Results of the present study is expected to provide assistance for intervention programs which aim to improve the development of social communication skills by visually impaired children, via mother- child interaction. / A Perspectiva da Interação Social dos Estudiosos da Linguagem enfatiza as primeiras interações socialmente estabelecidas entre a criança e o adulto como primordiais para o desenvolvimento das habilidades linguísticas, cognitivas e socioafetivas. Os estudos que envolvem a análise do desenvolvimento linguístico infantil evidenciam que há padrões de estilos comunicativos que são característicos, haja vista que a idade da criança, a sua capacidade cognitiva e o próprio desenvolvimento linguístico influenciam os inputs maternos utilizados. Em crianças com necessidades educativas especiais, como é o caso de crianças com deficiência visual, a interação com a mãe possivelmente será marcada por algumas particularidades, uma vez que o contato inicial, através de trocas de olhares, inexiste. O presente estudo, de cunho longitudinal, analisou a interação mãe-criança com deficiência visual, cujo intuito foi identificar o desenvolvimento linguístico infantil a partir das habilidades sociocomunicativas infantis. Especificamente, procurou-se investigar os comportamentos comunicativos maternos e infantis; a identificação de cenas de atenção conjunta em episódios interativos e as concepções maternas sobre o desenvolvimento da criança. Trata-se de dois estudos de caso, com duas crianças com idades de três e quatro anos, ambas com deficiência visual (cegueira total) e suas respectivas mães. A coleta de dados foi realizada na residência das díades, em seis etapas distintas, com intervalos de dois meses. Os instrumentos utilizados foram: entrevista semiestruturada com uso de um gravador digital; Lista de Avaliação do Vocabulário Expressivo (LAVE); câmera de vídeo digital para a realização de 12 filmagens em cada díade. Em cada etapa do estudo aconteceram duas observações, uma em situação de brincadeira livre e outra em situação estruturada. Nesta última, foi sugerido o uso de brinquedos educativos, previamente selecionados e condizentes com a faixa etária e com a condição visual das crianças. As entrevistas foram analisadas através da análise de conteúdo categorial temática proposta por Bardin. No que diz respeito às observações, dez dos vinte minutos filmados em cada situação foram transcritos, a partir do formato Chat do sistema computacional Childes (Child Language Data Exchange System). Utilizou-se também o componente Clan do mesmo sistema operacional, o qual fornece as frequências e a precisão na codificação dos dados. Foram elaboradas categorias com base nos objetivos do estudo, em pesquisas da área e nos protocolos das observações. Verificou-se que na díade 1, a mãe considera que o desenvolvimento da criança requer orientações específicas, principalmente no uso de outras funções perceptivas, como o tato e a audição. Na aplicação da LAVE identificou-se um avanço entre a primeira e a última aplicação. No que diz respeito às observações, observou-se uma preocupação materna em promover a participação da criança no processo interacional, a qual, por sua vez, demonstrou ao longo das etapas, maior iniciativa própria e uso contextualizado de diferentes comportamentos comunicativos. Na díade 2 evidenciou-se a estratégia materna de dirigir o foco atencional da criança, bem como o relato materno de que o desenvolvimento linguístico da criança parece inadequado para a sua faixa etária. Esta informação foi verificada também através da LAVE e das observações, que mostraram a dificuldade da criança em comunicar-se apropriadamente, fazendo uso de palavras descontextualizadas e de expressões verbais rígidas. De um modo geral, destaca-se a importância de considerar o contexto situacional e de olhar os membros da díade por meio de uma perspectiva bidirecional, já que o comportamento de um influencia o comportamento do outro. Espera-se que os resultados da presente tese possam subsidiar o planejamento de programas de intervenção, cujo intuito seja de promover o desenvolvimento das habilidades sociocomunicativas das crianças com deficiência visual, através da interação com a mãe.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar o impacto da interação mãe-criança e da experiência de creche para o desenvolvimento infantil nos dois primeiros anos de vida da criança. Participaram do estudo 44 crianças (M=6,4 meses; DP=1,6) e suas mães (M=34,1 anos; DP=5,2) divididos em dois grupos: Grupo Creche (21 crianças que frequentavam a creche) e Grupo Não Creche (23 crianças que não frequentavam a creche). As mães de ambos os grupos apresentavam alta escolaridade (M=17,6 anos; DP=) e renda familiar média de R$ 8.307,95 (DP=6.157). Foram realizadas três fases de coleta de dados (Fase dos 6, 12 e 18 meses de vida). As díades mãe-criança foram filmadas durante interação livre quando se examinou a qualidade da interação através do Maternal Behavior Q-sort, enquanto o desenvolvimento infantil (cognitivo, da linguagem, socioemocional e motor) foi avaliado através das Escalas Bayley III. Por fim, a qualidade da creche foi avaliada pela escala Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. Os resultados revelaram que a escolaridade da mãe se correlacionou positivamente com alguns domínios de interação mãe-criança: Sensibilidade, Eficácia de resposta e Sincronia nas fases dos 12 e 18 meses. No que diz respeito ao impacto da creche para o desenvolvimento infantil, verificou-se um efeito significativo da creche apenas para o desenvolvimento motor, indicando que as crianças que frequentaram a creche tiveram escores mais elevados na Fase dos 18 meses. Ainda com relação à creche, verificou-se que frequentar ou não a creche não interferiu na qualidade da interação mãe-criança. Além disso, os resultados revelaram que alguns domínios da interação mãe-criança mostraram-se significativamente associados ao desenvolvimento infantil, entre eles: Estar ciente dos sinais do filho, Rejeição e Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem, sendo que os dois primeiros interferiram de forma negativa no desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses. Já Facilitação da exploração e aprendizagem pareceu beneficiar o desenvolvimento cognitivo aos 18 meses, além de apresentar associação positiva com desenvolvimento da linguagem e desenvolvimento motor. Por fim, verificou-se que a qualidade da interação mãe-criança e frequentar ou não a creche, explicaram apenas uma pequena parte da variância do desenvolvimento infantil. É plausível se supor que isto tenha ocorrido em função do curto tempo investigado e pela própria idade das crianças participantes do estudo. / The present study aimed to investigate the impact of mother-child interaction and experience of childcare center for infant development during the first two years of child’s life. The study included 44 children (M = 6.4 months, SD = 1.6) and their mothers (M = 34.1 years, SD = 5.2) divided into two groups: Childcare Center Group (21 children attending the center) and Non- childcare Center Group (23 children who did not attend the center). Three phases of data collection were performed (6, 12 and 18 months of the child's life). The mother-child dyads were videotaped during free play when it were examined the quality of interaction through the Maternal Behavior Q-sort and child development (cognitive, language, social-emotional and motor) was assessed by Bayley Scales III. Finally, the quality of childcare center was assessed by the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale. The results revealed that the mother's education was positively correlated with some domains of mother-child interaction: Sensitivity, Response effectiveness and Synchrony at 12 and 18 months. With regard to the impact of childcare center on child development, there was a significant effect of daycare only to motor development, indicating that children who attended day care had higher scores at 18 months. It was found that attend daycare center or not did not affect the quality of mother - child interaction. Furthermore, the results revealed that some domains of mother-child interaction were significantly associated with child development, among them: Awareness, Rejection and Facilitation of exploration and learning, and the first two domains interfered negatively on cognitive development at 18 months. Have Facilitation of exploration and learning seemed to benefit cognitive development at 18 months, in addition to presenting a positive association with the development of language and motor. Finally, it was found that the quality of mother-child interaction and attend daycare center or not explained only a small part of the variance in child development. It is plausible to assume that this has occurred because of the short time investigated and the age of the children in the study.

18ヵ月から始まるふり遊びは，子どもの社会性の発達にとって重要なものである。しかしこれまで，ふり遊びがどのように発達するかについては明らかにされてこなかった。本研究では，乳幼児期のふり遊びの発達について，18ヵ月，24ヵ月，30ヵ月の子どもの母親との遊びの観察から検討を行った。その結果，18ヵ月児，24ヵ月児にとっては母親の働きかけが必要であるが，30ヵ月児になると，母親の働きかけなしに子どもが主体的にふり遊び出来るようになることが示された。 / Pretend play, or make-believe play, is important for child development. However, the development of mother-child pretend play in the toddler years has not been clear. Through this study, we aimed to examine the development of mother-child pretend play in the toddler years. Participants were 18-, 24-, and 30-month-olds and their mothers. We observed these 3 groups in a mother-child pretend-play session. Results indicated that 18- and 24-month-olds need their mothers to exhibit pretense signals. However, 30-month-olds do not need this. In sum, pretend play in the toddler years develops from the stage where the mother's pretense signals are necessary to that where the child becomes independent. / 博士(心理学) / Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University

Parenting stress has been closely studied largely in relation to implications for the parent and implications for children. Emotion regulation refers to the processes in which one interprets and experiences emotions. Little has been done examining how parenting stress and mother emotion regulation relates to dyadic interaction between mother and child. Because of the compounding nature of stress as identified in the ABCX model of family stress and resilience theory, understanding parenting stress in its entirety and how mothers experience and deal with said parenting stress is crucial to understanding family processes, as it is not possible to partition the mother and child into separate spheres, per family systems theory. Maternal parenting behaviors cannot be conceptualized in isolation of the mother-child dyad; therefore, it is important to understand maternal processes and behaviors that relate to parenting and also the dyad. The current study examined the moderating impact of maternal emotion regulation on the relation between maternal parenting stress and three facets of dyadic interaction, including conflict, cooperation, and reciprocity. Mothers and their 4-5.5-year-old children (n=116) participated in a teaching task wherein mothers instructed their child to build figures with interlocking blocks based on provided images. Six hypotheses were examined. Regression analyses revealed that neither maternal cognitive reappraisal nor maternal emotion suppression moderated the relation of total parenting stress to parent-child dyadic interaction. However, preliminary correlation analyses revealed that dyads with boys experienced higher scores of dyadic conflict. Boys in the sample were also younger than girls. Considerations for lack of significant findings are explored including the role of maternal characteristics, child characteristics, and goodness-of-fit. Future exploration is necessary to examine how parent characteristics like maternal emotion regulation and parenting stress may relate to dyadic interactions with children. / M.S. / Most of the research on parenting stress, which is the stress that parents may feel related to their roles as parents, examines how it is related to parenting behavior or directly to their children’s behavior. There is little research on how parenting stress and maternal emotion regulation, which how mothers control their emotions, relate to dyadic interactions between mothers and children. Theories of family stress suggest that stress builds over time; therefore, it is important to understand all aspects of parenting stress. When any family member experiences stress, theories suggest that their stress can affect other family members. Maternal parenting behaviors, however, cannot be viewed separately from patterns of dyadic interaction between mothers and children; it is important to understand how maternal characteristics, including parenting stress and emotion regulation, relate to patterns of dyadic mother-child interaction. The current study examined how maternal parenting stress related to three types of dyadic interaction, including conflict, cooperation, and reciprocity. It was expected that how parenting stress would relate to dyadic interaction would be different depending on how mothers reported regulating their emotions. Mothers and their 4-5.5-year-old children (n=116) participated in a building task where mothers taught children how to make figures out of interlocking blocks based on pictures provided to mothers. Findings showed that maternal emotion regulation did not increase or decrease how maternal parenting stress related to dyadic interaction between mothers and children. Dyads with boys, however, experienced higher scores of dyadic conflict, and boys in the sample were also younger than girls. Future exploration is needed to examine how parent characteristics like maternal emotion regulation and parenting stress may relate to dyadic interactions between mothers and children.

本篇論文主要研究漢語兒童的否定表達，與其性別對否定表達方式之影響。使用的語料來自四位平均年齡五歲一個月的兒童，在家中與母親的日常對話。參與研究的兒童共使用八種語用策略與其組合，來對他們的母親表達七種否定。分析語料後顯示，此年齡層的兒童表達方式與成人不同，他們偏好使用單一策略做否定。此外，有別於同儕互動中主要使用間接否定來維持友誼，兒童對母親表達否定時較為直接。而他們的間接否定策略，大多出現在可能危及聽者面子的拒絕（Rejection）與否認（Denial）這兩者，也較常出現在表達自己能力與知識上的不足時（Inability & Epistemic negation）。在性別對否定表達的影響方面，女生在否定時有注重關係的傾向（care orientation）。她們拒絕或否認她們母親的次數比男生少，表達拒絕或否認時，也比男生使用更多間接策略與提供較容易理解的原因。在其他的否定語意方面，女生比男生更常表達自己在能力或知識上的不足，此外也更常述說物品的不復存在（Nonexistence）。本研究提供了漢語兒童在否定表達上的結果，也為兒童性別對否定表達的影響提供說明與證據。 / The study investigates children’s expression of negation, and how each gender expresses it to their mother. We observed 4 Mandarin-speaking children of age 5 (mean age= 5; 1) when they were having natural conversation with their mother at home. We found that children used 8 pragmatic strategies (account, nonverbal, correction, temporizing, challenge, countering move, partial agreement, and appealing) to express 7 negation meanings (Nonexistence, Non-occurrence, prohibition, rejection, denial, inability, and epistemic negation). The results showed that children preferred to use single strategy to negate, unlike adults. In contrast with peer interaction in which children preferred to use indirect strategy to maintain their friendship, the amount of direct strategy and indirect strategy were quite even in our data. Their indirect strategies tended to appear in negation meanings that are potentially face-threatening (rejection and denial) or reveal their own insufficiency (inability and epistemic negation). They also inclined to use a combination of strategies to deliver rejection, denial, and prohibition. When we further examine negation in boys and girls, we observe ‘care orientation’ in girls’ negation. They denied and rejected their mother less than boys did, mainly using indirect negation or understandable accounts while boys did the opposite. As for other negation meanings, girls revealed one’s insufficiency (Inability and Epistemic negation) and reported nonexistence of entities (Nonexistence) more often than boys did. The findings provide Mandarin children’s results and evidence of the expression of negation in mother-child interaction, and suggest gender does affect how boys and girls deliver various negation meanings.

Thesis (MA)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In all communities parents want to pass on strategies that will promote the survival of their children and foster their cultural competence. The ‘component model of parenting’, formulated by Keller (2000; 2007), captures universal propensities of parenting as well as cultural differences. The model hypothesizes that parenting styles are composed of different parenting systems, namely primary care, body contact, body stimulation, object stimulation, face-to-face interaction, and vocal stimulation. The proximal parenting style emphasizes primary care, body contact, and body stimulation, while the distal style of parenting focuses on verbal exchanges, object stimulation, and face-to-face interaction within the context of exclusive attention. According to Keller (2007), the dominance of certain systems over others can vary across cultural communities. This study aims to examine the cross-cultural conceptions of different adaptive and non-adaptive attachment qualities in three month old infants and their caregivers. This study explores whether culture-specific norms affect the development of different attachment qualities. It focuses on describing indigenous conceptions about parenting practices, socialization strategies, and caregiver beliefs. The study was conducted in the Western Cape region of South Africa. Participants included 25 mothers living in the greater Stellenbosch area and 29 mothers living in Khayelitsha. The measures included a socio-demographic questionnaire, spot observation videos, a picture card interview, and a socialization goals questionnaire. Data were coded according to coding schemes developed by Otto (2008). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, Mann-Whitney tests, and ANOVAs. The results indicated the Khayelitsha sample favoured a multiple caregiving arrangement, the proximal parenting style, and emphasized the importance of relational socialization goals. The greater Stellenbosch sample favoured an exclusive caregiving arrangement and emphasized the importance of autonomous socialization goals. Contrary to our expectations the greater Stellenbosch sample also favoured the proximal parenting style. The data demonstrates that cultural differences influence parenting practices and strategies. The data reported in this study challenge attachment theory’s universalism and provide an exploratory analysis of the different cultural conceptions regarding adaptive and non-adaptive attachment qualities. Further research using the same methodology needs to be conducted in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In alle gemeenskappe wil ouers strategieë oordra wat die oorlewing van hulle kinders bevorder en hulle kulturele bevoegdheid koester. Die ‘component model of parenting’, wat universele neigings en kulturele verkille in ouerskap inkorporeer, is geformuleer deur Keller (2000; 2007). Die model se hipotese stel voor dat ouerskap style uit verskillende ouerskap sisteme bestaan, naamlik primêre sorg, liggaamlike kontak, liggaamlike stimulasie, voorwerp stimulasie, een-tot-een interaksie, asook verbale stimulasie. Die proksimale ouerskap styl benadruk primêre sorg, liggaamlike kontak, en liggaamlike stimulasie. Daarteenoor fokus die distale ouerskap styl op verbale interaksie, voorwerp stimulasie, en een-tot-een interaksie binne die perke van ekslusiewe aandag. Volgens Keller (2007), kan die dominansie van sekere style bo ander verskil regoor kulturele gemeenskappe. Die studie poog om die onderskye multikulterele beskouinge rondom verbondenheids aanpassings, of gebrek daaraan, by drie maande oue kinders en hul versorgers te ondersoek. Die studie ondersoek of kultuur-spesifieke norme die ontwikkeling van verskillende verbondenheids kwaliteite affekteer. Dit fokus op die bekrywing van inheemse beskouinge omtrent ouerskap, sosialiserings strategieë, en die versorger se oortuigings. Die steekproef ws gebaseer in die Wes-Kaap van Suid-Afrika. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 25 moeders wat in die groter Stellenbosch area woon en 29 moeders wat in Khayelitsha woon. Die maatstawwe het ‘n sosio-demografiese vraelys, 20 op die plek observasie videos, ‘n onderhoud met prentjie kaarte, en ‘n sosialiserings doel vraelys ingesluit. Die data was gekodeer volgense koderings skemas wat deur Otto (2008) ontwikkel was. Die data was toe geanaliseer met beskrywende statistiek, t-toetse, Mann-Whitney toetse, en ANOVAs. Die resultate toon dat die Khayelitsha steekproef ‘n verskeie versorging benadering en die proksimale ouerskap styl verkies het. Hulle het die belangrikheid van verwante sosialiserings doelwitte benadruk. Die groter Stellenbosch steekproef het ‘n eksklusiewe versorgings benadering verkies en het die belangrikheid van autonome sosialiserings doelwitte benadruk. Teen verwagtinge het hulle ook die proksimale ouerskap styl verkies. Die data dui aan dat kulturele verskille beïnvloed ouerskap praktyke en strategieë. Die data wat in hierdie studie gerapporteer is, bevraagteken gehegtheidsteorie se universalisme en verskaf ‘n verkennende analise van die verskillende kulturele opvattings oor aanpasbare en nie-aanpasbare gehegtheids eienskappe. Verdere navorsing volgens dieselfde metodes moet nog in Suid Afrika gedoen word.

Ausgangspunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die gut belegte Assoziation zwischen mütterlicher Depression und ungünstigen emotionalen und behavioralen Folgen für ihre Kinder. Allerdings sind die Faktoren, die zu der transgenerationalen Übertragung der Depression beitragen, noch nicht geklärt. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, zwei möglicherweise dazu beitragende psychologische Faktoren zu untersuchen: (1) Affekterkennung von Gesichtsausdrücken in Mutter-Kind Dyaden und (2) mütterliche emotionale Verfügbarkeit. Dazu wurden drei Studien durchgeführt. Studie I untersucht mittels funktioneller Magnetresonanztomographie (fMRT) unterscheidbare und überlappende Aktivierungsmuster bei gesunden Müttern, während sie fröhliche und traurige Gesichter ihres eigenen Kindes sehen. Studie II verwendet eine Morphing-Aufgabe, um die Affekterkennung in Müttern mit remittierter Depression und ihren Kindern zu untersuchen. In Studie III wird die emotionale Verfügbarkeit von Müttern mit remittierter Depression in einer Verhaltensbeobachtung untersucht. Ergebnisse der Studie I zeigen eine größere Gehirnaktivierung der Mütter bei traurigen eigenen Kindergesichtern in der Amygdala und anterioren Cingulum, hingegen bei fröhlichen im Hippocampus und inferioren Frontalgyrus. Überlappende Aktivierung wurde in der Insula gefunden. Diese Aktivierungsmuster könnten feinfühliges mütterliches Verhalten erleichtern und das Aufrechterhalten der Mutter-Kind Beziehung unterstützen. Ergebnisse von Studie II belegen einen negativen Verarbeitungsbias bei Müttern mit einer remittierten Depression, wobei parallele Veränderungen bei ihren Kindern gefunden wurden. Dies könnte auf einen transgenerationalen Übertragungsprozess hinweisen. Ergebnisse von Studie III zeigen eine verminderte emotionale Verfügbarkeit bei Müttern in Remission, was eine Trait-Eigenschaft darstellen könnte. / Starting point of the present dissertation is the well-established association between maternal depression and adverse emotional and behavioral outcomes in children. The factors contributing to the transgenerational transmission of depression have not been fully elucidated. The aim of this thesis is to investigate two psychological factors that potentially contribute to this transgenerational association: (1) affect recognition of facial expressions in mother-child dyads and (2) maternal emotional availability. Therefore, three studies have been conducted. In study I, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is used to measure dissociable and overlapping brain activation in healthy mothers, while they view happy, neutral and sad faces of their own child. By using a morphing task, study II tests the hypothesis that affect recognition is biased in mothers with depression in remission and their children. Study III investigates whether emotional availability is reduced in mothers remitted from depression. Study I revealed greater brain activation in the amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex while mothers viewed sad faces of their own child, whereas greater brain activation was detected in the hippocampus and inferior frontal gyrus in response to happy faces. Conjoint activation was found in the insula. These activations might facilitate sensitive maternal behavior and promote mothers to maintain the mother-child relationship. Findings of study II demonstrate a negative processing bias in mothers with depression in remission, which was paralleled in their children. This finding could possibly point to a process of transgenerational transmission. Results of study III indicate reduced emotional availability in mothers who have remitted from depression, which might represent a trait characteristic of depression.