Les cellules souches neurales (CSNs) de la zone sous-ventriculaire (ZSV) présentent une activité germinale intense tout au long de la vie d'un individu. Les CSNs postnatales sont régionalisées en microdomaines exprimant des facteurs de transcription spécifiques et générant des sous-types neuronaux distincts dans le bulbe olfactif (BO). Les interneurones calrétinine (CalR+) représentent la plus grande population d'interneurones périglomérulaires (PG) du BO produits après la naissance. Cependant, contrairement à d'autres, il existe peu d'informations concernant leur origine, leur diversité et leur fonction dans le BO, ainsi que les facteurs de transcription impliqués dans leur génération. Des études antérieures ont mis en évidence que les interneurones CalR + PG sont générés à la fois par les microdomaines médial et dorsal de la ZSV, et ont suggéré que le facteur de transcription Sp8 serait impliqué dans leur génération. Ce travail de thèse a eu pour objectif : 1) d'affiner les approches actuelles afin de manipuler l'expression génique dans les CSNs de la ZSV postnatale d'une manière contrôlée temporellement, 2) d'explorer l'origine et la fonction des interneurones CalR + périglomérulaires, 3) d'étudier le rôle du facteur de transcription Sp8 dans le codage transcriptionnel de la spécification des interneurones CalR + périglomérulaires ainsi que leur maturation. Ainsi, une approche d'électroporation postnatale classique a été affinée afin de pouvoir manipuler l'expression des gènes dans les CSNs de la ZSV et ainsi permettre de cartographier le devenir à long terme de la progénie des CSNs et de manipuler génétiquement ces CSNs à une étape précise de leur différentiation. Le perfectionnement de cette approche a permis d'identifier deux sous-populations d'interneurones CalR + présentant des origines spatiales et temporelles différentes après la naissance, ainsi que d'explorer les implications fonctionnelles et morphologiques de cette diversité. Ainsi, une fraction importante et non décrite d'interneurones CalR + PG présente des propriétés de neurones immatures (c'est-à-dire qu'elle reçoit peu d'entrées synaptiques et est faiblement excitable), remettant en question leur rôle dans le traitement de l'information olfactive. Enfin, des manipulations génétiques du facteur de transcription Sp8 à divers stades de la différenciation des interneurones CalR+ ont mis en évidence son rôle dans la survie à long terme des interneurones CalR + PG matures, tout en excluant un rôle dans leur spécification précoce. Ces résultats amène ainsi un éclairage nouveau sur l'origine, la diversité et le codage transcriptionnel des interneurones CalR + PG et appellent à une caractérisation plus précise de leur rôle dans le traitement de l'information olfactive / The subventricular zone (SVZ) is a brain region that shows intense germinal activity throughout postnatal life. The postnatal SVZ is subdivided in microdomains containing neural stem cells (NSCs) that express defined transcription factors and generate distinct neuronal subtypes in the olfactory bulb (OB). Calretinin-expressing (CalR+) interneurons represent the largest population of OB periglomerular interneurons produced after birth. Yet, in contrast to others, limited information exists regarding their origin, diversity and function in the OB, as well as the transcription factors that guide their generation. Previous studies highlighted that CalR+ PG interneurons are generated by both the medial and dorsal SVZ microdomains, and suggested that the transcription factor Sp8 is involved in their generation.This work aimed at 1) refining current approaches for manipulating gene expression in postnatal SVZ NSCs in a temporally controlled manner, 2) exploring the origin and the function of CalR+ periglomerular neurons, 3) investigating the role of Sp8 in the transcriptional coding of CalR+ periglomerular interneurons specification and maturation.Refinement of the classical electroporation approach allowed the long-term fate mapping and timely-controlled genetic manipulation of NSCs of the SVZ. Using this refined approach allowed identifying two subpopulations of CalR+ interneurons that show different spatial and temporal origins after birth, as well as to explore the functional and morphological correlates of this diversity. A large and previously non-described fraction of CalR+ periglomerular interneurons exhibits properties of immature neurons (i.e. little synaptic inputs and weak excitability), questioning their role in olfactory processing. Finally, genetic manipulations of the transcription factor Sp8 at different stages during CalR+ interneuron differentiation highlighted its role in the long-term survival of mature CalR+ periglomerular interneurons, while excluding a role in their early specification. Altogether these results shed new lights on the origin, diversity and transcriptional coding of CalR+ periglomerular i nterneurons and call for a characterization of their role in olfactory processing

Le stress environnemental croissant perçu dans les zones résidentielles crée un sentiment d’insécurité et une perception négative de la qualité de vie, plaçant la nuisance olfactive au coeur des préoccupations des études environnementales. Dans ce contexte, les travaux de recherche présentés dans cette thèse de doctorat ont été initiés dans le but d’aboutir à une méthode permettant d’évaluer et de représenter les niveaux de gêne olfactive sur un territoire. En conséquence, l’intérêt s’est porté non seulement sur les caractéristiques de la source et des sujets récepteurs mais aussi sur leur environnement au moment de la perception de la nuisance odorante. Plus particulièrement, l’objectif de cette nouvelle approche est de permettre de mesurer et de prévoir l’impact olfactif d’une industrie existante ou future sur un territoire donné. L’idée est de représenter le niveau de gêne olfactive et ses conséquences sur le territoire, afin d’avoir une meilleure gestion du site industriel en termes de rejets, mais aussi de fournir une aide à la décision claire et objective aux acteurs impliqués. La démarche développée s’articule autour de deux concepts : la gêne olfactive et le préjudice économique de cette gêne sur le territoire. Ces deux concepts sont définis par un ensemble de critères hétérogènes organisés et agrégés afin d’aboutir à un outil géographique et environnemental opérationnel. L’outil a été validé autour d’un site industriel permettant de confronter l’approche méthodologique développée et le résultat des mesures sur place. Les résultats de l’application de cette méthode sont de qualité satisfaisante et ouvrent la porte à de nombreuses perspectives de recherche. / The increasing environmental stress felt in residential areas leads to an unsafety sensation and to a negative life-quality perception, setting odor annoyance at the heart of environmental issues. Within this context, the research work presented in this doctoral thesis was initiated in order to result in a method allowing to assess and to represent the odor annoyance levels on a given territory. As a consequence, the interest has focused not only on the characteristics of the source and of the exposed targets, but also on their environment during the perception of the olfactory nuisance. To be more precise, the aim of this new approach is to make us able to measure and to forecast the olfactory impact of an existing or a future industry plant on a given territory. The main idea is to represent the level of odor annoyance and its consequences on the territory, in order to reach a best level of industrial plant management in terms of wastes as well as to provide a clear and objective decision support tool for the involved actors. The developed method revolves around two main concepts: the odor annoyance and the economical prejudice of this annoyance on the targeted territory. These two concepts are defined by a group of heterogeneous criteria, organized and aggregated in order to obtain a geographical and environmental operational tool. This tool has been validated for an industrial plant, thus comparing the developed approach to on the spot measurements results. The results of the application of this method came out satisfying and open numerous paths of inquiry.

No genoma de camundongo existem por volta de 1000 genes que codificam para receptores olfatórios (ORs) e 150 genes que codificam para receptores de feromônios do tipo 1 (V1Rs) distribuídos em vários cromossomos. Cada neurônio olfatório e vomeronasal seleciona um único alelo de um único gene de receptor OR ou de V1R, respectivamente, para expressar enquanto que o restante do repertório é mantido silenciado. Os mecanismos que regulam esse padrão de expressão não são conhecidos. As similaridades no padrão de expressão dos genes de ORs e de V1Rs sugerem que o mecanismo de regulação possa ser comum. Até então poucas regiões promotoras de genes de ORs e de genes de V1Rs haviam sido experimentalmente determinadas e pesquisadas. Realizamos uma análise na qual regiões a montante de um grande número de diferentes genes de ORs e de genes de V1Rs foram comparadas. Primeiro, utilizando a técnica de RLMRACE, combinada com o uso de oligonucleotídeos capazes de reconhecer regiões conservadas entre diversos membros das famílias de genes de ORs e de V1Rs, geramos centenas de cDNAs contendo a região 5UTR completa para um total de 198 genes de ORs e 39 genes de V1Rs diferentes. Então, alinhamos as sequências desses cDNAs contra o genoma de camundongo e localizamos a posição exata dos sítios de início da transcrição (TSSs) de cada gene. Extraímos seqüências a 5 dos TSSs dos 198 genes de ORs e dos 39 genes de V1Rs e buscamos por motivos de DNA comuns, presentes em várias dessas regiões promotoras, que pudessem ser 6 candidatos a elementos cis-atuantes envolvidos na regulação geral desses genes de receptores sensoriais. Identificamos, na grande maioria das regiões promotoras dos genes de ORs e dos genes de V1Rs analisadas, a presença de motivos semelhantes a sítios de ligação para os fatores de transcrição O/E que são fatores de transcrição já caracterizados e envolvidos com a expressão de genes específicos do sistema olfatório. Ensaios de EMSA mostraram que os motivos semelhantes aos sítios de ligação de O/E identificados interagem com proteínas nucleares de epitélio olfatório, mas não interagem com proteínas nucleares de cérebro e fígado. Identificamos também nas regiões promotoras de genes de V1Rs a presença de um sítio de ligação que não se assemelha a nenhum sítio de ligação de fatores de transcrição conhecido. Esse motivo de DNA, além de estar presente na maioria dos promotores de genes de V1Rs analisados (77% do total de 39 genes pesquisados), também aparece, com alta frequência, em promotores de genes de ORs (52% do total de 198 genes analisados), preferencialmente próximo aos TSSs. Ensaios de interação in vitro indicam que este novo motivo de DNA interage com proteínas nucleares extraídas de órgão vomeronasal e também de epitélio olfatório, mas não interage com proteínas nucleares de cérebro, fígado e pulmão. Nosso trabalho mostra que genes de ORs e de V1Rs compartilham elementos comuns em suas regiões promotoras os quais podem ser sítios de ligação de fatores de transcrição específicos do sistema olfatório envolvidos no mecanismo de regulação da expressão desses genes. / In the mouse genome there are approximately 1000 genes that encode olfactory receptors (ORs) and 150 genes that encode type 1 vomeronasal receptors (V1Rs) dispersed in various chromosomes. Each olfactory or vomeronasal neuron selects one single allele from one single receptor gene (OR or V1R) for expression while the rest of the repertoire remains silenced. The mechanisms underlying OR and V1R gene expression are still unknown. The similarities of the pattern of expression in both types of olfactory sensory neurons suggest that the regulation of OR and V1R gene expression may be under the control of a common mechanism. Until now, promoter regions of different OR and V1R genes had not been extensively analyzed. We carried out a comprehensive analysis in which the upstream regions of a large number of different OR and V1R genes were compared. First, using the RLM-RACE strategy, combined with degenerate PCR we generated hundreds of complete 5UTR cDNAs for a total of 198 OR genes and 39 V1R genes. Then, these cDNAs were aligned against the mouse genome sequence and the transcription start sites (TSSs) were precisely determined. Sequences upstream of the TSSs were retrieved and searched for common DNA motifs that may play a role as cis-acting elements involved in the general regulation of OR and V1R gene expression. The analysis revealed the presence of motifs that resemble O/E-like sites overrepresented in the OR and V1R promoter regions. These O/E-like motifs specifically interact with nuclear protein prepared from olfactory epithelium, but not from brain and liver. 8 We also identified a new motif that does not resemble any known transcription factor binding site. Besides, this new motif is present in 77% of the 39 V1R promoter regions and in 52% of the 198 OR promoter regions analyzed, preferentially concentrated near the TSSs. Interestingly, binding assays indicate that this new motif interacts with nuclear proteins prepared from the vomeronasal and the olfactory epithelia, but not from brain, liver and lung. Our results indicate that OR and V1R genes share common promoter elements that may be binding sites for specific olfactory transcription factors and may play a role in a common mechanism of olfactory and vomeronasal gene regulation

Lesões medulares resultam em uma perda irreversível da função abaixo do sítio da lesão. Esses comprometimentos são permanentes e ocorrem devido à perda de neurônios localmente e também dos tratos axonais ascendentes e descendentes da medula espinal. Na tentativa de criar um ambiente favorável à regeneração dos axônios lesionados, células da glia embainhante olfatória (GEO) vêm sendo transplantadas como estratégia de tratamento em animais submetidos a diferentes modelos experimentais de lesões medulares. Entretanto, um consenso sobre o potencial terapêutico desse tipo de transplante celular ainda precisa ser estabelecido. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi verificar a eficácia do transplante de lâmina própria (LP) olfatória (que possui células da GEO) e de LP respiratória (desprovido de células da GEO), quando implantadas imediatamente, 2 ou 4 semanas após a realização da transecção da medula espinal. Doze semanas após a realização dos implantes, os animais que receberam LP olfatória e respiratória apresentaram uma melhora sutil na função motora dos membros posteriores. Além disso, o transplante de LP olfatória quando realizado imediatamente após a lesão reduziu a hiperatividade do reflexo de retirada, enquanto o implante desse tipo de tecido 4 semanas pós-lesão produziu uma discreta depressão dependente de frequência do reflexo de Hoffman (um análogo elétrico do reflexo monossináptico de estiramento). Nas diferentes janelas terapêuticas utilizadas, o transplante de ambos os tipos de LP produziu resultados comparáveis em relação à preservação do tecido medular, brotamento de neuritos e regeneração de fibras mielínicas no local da lesão, indicando que o tempo decorrido antes da realização dos transplantes não parece limitar os efeitos regenerativos. Todavia, as fibras mielínicas observadas no sítio da transecção nos animais que receberam LP olfatória 2 e 4 semanas pós-lesão possuíam menor área, diâmetro e espessura da bainha de mielina quando comparados aos animais que receberam LP respiratória nesses mesmos períodos. O transplante imediato de LP olfatória e respiratória também favoreceu o restabelecimento das conexões entre as fibras axonais lesionadas com núcleos do tronco encefálico e até mesmo com a região do córtex somatossensorial, como indicado pela presença de neurônios nessas regiões marcados positivamente com um marcador axonal retrógrado. Um número maior de fibras positivas para 5-HT foi observado no coto proximal dos grupos transplantados com ambos os tipos de LP em comparação às regiões da lesão e do coto caudal. Fibras positivas para CGRP estavam presentes em número considerável no local da lesão. A recuperação locomotora e a regeneração axonal no local da lesão foram limitadas e comparáveis entre os grupos transplantados nos diferentes tempos com LP olfatória e respiratória, sugerindo que esses resultados não estão exclusivamente relacionados à presença de células da GEO nos enxertos utilizados. Um melhor entendimento sobre o potencial restaurativo desse tipo de transplante é necessário a fim de justificar a aplicação dessa terapia em humanos. / Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in an irreversible loss of function below the injury site. These permanent disabilities occur due to local neuronal death and loss of ascending and descending axons in the spinal cord. In attempt to create a favorable environment for the re-growth of injured axons, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) have been transplanted as a treatment strategy in animals submitted to different experimental models of SCI. However, a consensus on the efficacy of this cellular transplantation has yet to be reached. The main focus of the present study was explore the efficacy of olfactory lamina propria (OLP, graft containing OECs) or respiratory lamina propria (RLP, graft without OECs) when transplanted immediately, 2-week or 4-week after spinal cord transection. After 12 weeks of transplantation, animals with OLP and RLP grafts showed a subtle hindlimb motor improvement. Furthermore, the transplantation of OLP when performed immediately after injury reduced the withdrawal reflex over-responsiveness, while the implantation of this tissue 4 weeks post-injury produced a discrete frequency-dependent habituation of the Hoffman reflex (the electrical analogue of the classic tendon jerk reflex). In all therapeutic windows used, both lamina propria grafts produced comparable results for tissue sparing, fibers sprouting and re-growth of myelinated fibers at the lesion site, indicating that delayed transplantation approach does not seem to limit the regenerative effects. However, the myelinated fibers observed at the transection site of animals that received OLP 2 or 4 weeks after injury had a smaller myelinated fiber area, diameter and myelin sheath thickness when compared to those animals transplanted with RLP grafts in the same periods. The immediate transplantation of OLP and RLP also foster limited supraspinal axonal re-connection as shown by the presence of neurons stained by retrograde tracing in brainstem nuclei and in the somatosensory cortex. A larger number of 5-HT positive axons were found in the cranial stump of both lamina propria groups compared to the lesion and caudal regions. CGRP positive axons were present in considerable numbers at the SCI site. The locomotor recovery and axon reparative effects were limited and similar between groups transplanted at different times with OLP and RLP, suggesting that these results could not be exclusively related to OECs. In conclusion, a greater understanding of the restorative potential of these tissue grafts is necessary to strengthen the rationale for application of this treatment in humans.

INTRODUÇÃO: A biópsia do neuroepitélio olfatório (NeuO) oferece perspectivas para aplicações terapêuticas tanto em doenças do olfato como doenças neurodegenerativas. Uma coleta bem sucedida desse tecido in vivo ainda não é rotina, devido á carência de estudos sobre a distribuição do NeuO em conchas superior (CS) e média (CM). Neste trabalho, descrevemos a distribuição do NeuO na CS e CM em cadáveres a partir da retirada integral dessas estruturas e posterior análise histológica por coloração de hematoxilina e eosina (HE) e imunoistoquímica. Além disso, também analisamos a influência do sexo, idade e lateralidade no grau de presença do NeuO nas CS e CM. CASUÍSTICA E MÉTODOS: Estudo anatômico prospectivo realizado de março de 2006 a janeiro de 2008. A CS e a CM foram endoscopicamente retiradas de um total de 25 cadáveres frescos com menos de 12 horas de óbito. Cada concha foi seccionada na metade de seu comprimento ântero-posterior. Assim, cada um dos 25 cadáveres deu origem a oito fragmentos de mucosa de regiões anatômicas distintas, totalizando 200 lâminas para análise tanto por coloração de HE como por reação de imunoistoquímica. Nas lâminas coradas por HE, classificamos a distribuição do NeuO em graus 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, sendo que a análise foi realizada por 3 patologistas de forma cega. Para imunoistoquímica, só obtivemos positividade com a proteína S-100. A concordância entre os três patologistas foi avaliada aos pares utilizando-se o coeficiente de Kappa. A distribuição do NeuO foi analisada de acordo com a idade, sexo, tempo de óbito, simetria entre as fossas nasais e acurácia da imunoistoquímica. RESULTADOS: Pela HE na CS, o NeuO esteve presente em 82,9% das vezes e, na CM, em 17,1%. Na CS, o NeuO foi detectado em 82,9 % das lâminas, 4,9 vezes a prevalência na CM, que foi de 17,1 % das lâminas (p < 0,001). Pela imunoistoquímica, foi possível encontrar NeuO em um total de 15 fragmentos. Desses, 10 (20%) eram da metade posterior da CS e cinco (7,6%) da metade anterior da CS. Pelo cálculo da razão de prevalência, temos que a chance de encontrar NeuO é 4,9 vezes maior na CS do que na CM (IC95%: 3,3 7,4). Dos 15 fragmentos com marcação positiva para proteína S-100, sete corresponderam aos que tinham uma distribuição grau 3 (>50% e 75%) pela HE e outros sete aos que tinham uma distribuição grau 4 (acima de 75%). Somente um fragmento teve marcação positiva para imunoistoquímica no grupo 2 (entre 26 e 50%) na HE. A proteína S-100 apresentou uma sensibilidade de 13,5% e especificidade de 100% para detecção de NeuO. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante na prevalência de NeuO quando os fragmentos foram divididos de acordo com o sexo, idade de óbito e lado da fossa nasal. No entanto, ao analisarmos a presença de NeuO de acordo com o grau de distribuição entre cada lado, não se percebe uma concordância. CONCLUSÕES: A quantidade total de NeuO foi simetricamente distribuída entre as fossas nasais, mas não houve uma concordância entre os lados quanto à maneira como o NeuO está distribuído. O NeuO apresenta maior probabilidade de ser encontrado na metade posterior de CS. A HE é um método eficaz para distinção entre NeuO e epitélio respiratório, devido a grande concordância entre três patologistas distintos. / INTRODUCTION: Olfactory neuroepithelium (ON) biopsy provides perspectives for several therapeutic applications, both in disorders of olfaction and in neurodegenerative diseases. Successful in vivo collection of ON is still not routine, due to a dearth of studies on ON distribution in the superior and middle turbinate (ST and MT respectively). This study describes the distribution of ON in cadaver ST and MT as determined by complete endoscopic removal of turbinates and histological analysis with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemical staining. We also analyzed the influence of gender, age, and naris side on the extent to which ON is present in the superior and middle turbinate. CASE SELECTION AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective anatomical study from March 2006 to January 2008. The superior and middle turbinates of 25 fresh cadavers (less than 12 hours post-mortem) were removed endoscopically. Each turbinate was halved into anterior and posterior fragments. Eight anatomically distinct fragments were therefore obtained from each of the 25 cadavers for a total of 200 specimens, which were analyzed through H&E staining and immunohistochemistry. Hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides were subjected to blind examination by three independent pathologists; ON distribution was graded on a fivepoint numeric scale (grade 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4). Immunohistochemistry was only positive through S-100 staining. Pairwise agreement between pathologists was assessed by means of the Kappa coefficient. The distribution of ON was analyzed regarding age, gender, time elapsed between death and specimen harvesting, symmetry between nares, and accuracy of immunohistochemistry results. RESULTS: In H&E-stained slides, olfactory neuroepithelium was present in 82.9% of ST and 17.1% of MT specimens; prevalence in the superior turbinate was therefore 4.9-fold greater (p < 0.001). Immunohistochemical analysis was able to identify ON in 15 fragments, 10 of which (20%) were from the posterior half of the superior turbinate; the remaining five specimens (7.6%) were from the anterior ST. According to prevalence ratio, the odds of finding ON are 4.9 times greater in superior turbinate than in the middle turbinate (CI, 95%; 3.37.4). Of the 15 immunohistochemistry-positive fragments, seven were assigned distribution grade 3 (>50% and 75% presence of ON) on H&E staining seven others were graded 4 (>75% presence of ON). A single immunohistochemistrypositive fragment was found to have grade 2 ON distribution (i.e., it contained 26% to 50% olfactory neuroepithelium) on H&E staining. S-100 staining showed a sensitivity of 13.5% and specificity of 100% for ON detection. There was no statistically significant difference in ON prevalence when fragments were compared according to gender, age at time of death, and naris side. However, when we analyzed ON presence according to the degree of ON distribution in each side, we found no concordance. CONCLUSIONS: Total ON was distributed symmetrically between nares, but we found no concordance between sides in the manner in which ON is distributed. ON is most likely to be found in the posterior half of the superior turbinate. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining is an effective method for distinguishing ON from respiratory epithelium, as shown by high inter-rater agreement among three independent pathologists

No genoma de camundongo existem por volta de 1000 genes que codificam para receptores olfatórios (ORs) e 150 genes que codificam para receptores de feromônios do tipo 1 (V1Rs) distribuídos em vários cromossomos. Cada neurônio olfatório e vomeronasal seleciona um único alelo de um único gene de receptor OR ou de V1R, respectivamente, para expressar enquanto que o restante do repertório é mantido silenciado. Os mecanismos que regulam esse padrão de expressão não são conhecidos. As similaridades no padrão de expressão dos genes de ORs e de V1Rs sugerem que o mecanismo de regulação possa ser comum. Até então poucas regiões promotoras de genes de ORs e de genes de V1Rs haviam sido experimentalmente determinadas e pesquisadas. Realizamos uma análise na qual regiões a montante de um grande número de diferentes genes de ORs e de genes de V1Rs foram comparadas. Primeiro, utilizando a técnica de RLMRACE, combinada com o uso de oligonucleotídeos capazes de reconhecer regiões conservadas entre diversos membros das famílias de genes de ORs e de V1Rs, geramos centenas de cDNAs contendo a região 5UTR completa para um total de 198 genes de ORs e 39 genes de V1Rs diferentes. Então, alinhamos as sequências desses cDNAs contra o genoma de camundongo e localizamos a posição exata dos sítios de início da transcrição (TSSs) de cada gene. Extraímos seqüências a 5 dos TSSs dos 198 genes de ORs e dos 39 genes de V1Rs e buscamos por motivos de DNA comuns, presentes em várias dessas regiões promotoras, que pudessem ser 6 candidatos a elementos cis-atuantes envolvidos na regulação geral desses genes de receptores sensoriais. Identificamos, na grande maioria das regiões promotoras dos genes de ORs e dos genes de V1Rs analisadas, a presença de motivos semelhantes a sítios de ligação para os fatores de transcrição O/E que são fatores de transcrição já caracterizados e envolvidos com a expressão de genes específicos do sistema olfatório. Ensaios de EMSA mostraram que os motivos semelhantes aos sítios de ligação de O/E identificados interagem com proteínas nucleares de epitélio olfatório, mas não interagem com proteínas nucleares de cérebro e fígado. Identificamos também nas regiões promotoras de genes de V1Rs a presença de um sítio de ligação que não se assemelha a nenhum sítio de ligação de fatores de transcrição conhecido. Esse motivo de DNA, além de estar presente na maioria dos promotores de genes de V1Rs analisados (77% do total de 39 genes pesquisados), também aparece, com alta frequência, em promotores de genes de ORs (52% do total de 198 genes analisados), preferencialmente próximo aos TSSs. Ensaios de interação in vitro indicam que este novo motivo de DNA interage com proteínas nucleares extraídas de órgão vomeronasal e também de epitélio olfatório, mas não interage com proteínas nucleares de cérebro, fígado e pulmão. Nosso trabalho mostra que genes de ORs e de V1Rs compartilham elementos comuns em suas regiões promotoras os quais podem ser sítios de ligação de fatores de transcrição específicos do sistema olfatório envolvidos no mecanismo de regulação da expressão desses genes. / In the mouse genome there are approximately 1000 genes that encode olfactory receptors (ORs) and 150 genes that encode type 1 vomeronasal receptors (V1Rs) dispersed in various chromosomes. Each olfactory or vomeronasal neuron selects one single allele from one single receptor gene (OR or V1R) for expression while the rest of the repertoire remains silenced. The mechanisms underlying OR and V1R gene expression are still unknown. The similarities of the pattern of expression in both types of olfactory sensory neurons suggest that the regulation of OR and V1R gene expression may be under the control of a common mechanism. Until now, promoter regions of different OR and V1R genes had not been extensively analyzed. We carried out a comprehensive analysis in which the upstream regions of a large number of different OR and V1R genes were compared. First, using the RLM-RACE strategy, combined with degenerate PCR we generated hundreds of complete 5UTR cDNAs for a total of 198 OR genes and 39 V1R genes. Then, these cDNAs were aligned against the mouse genome sequence and the transcription start sites (TSSs) were precisely determined. Sequences upstream of the TSSs were retrieved and searched for common DNA motifs that may play a role as cis-acting elements involved in the general regulation of OR and V1R gene expression. The analysis revealed the presence of motifs that resemble O/E-like sites overrepresented in the OR and V1R promoter regions. These O/E-like motifs specifically interact with nuclear protein prepared from olfactory epithelium, but not from brain and liver. 8 We also identified a new motif that does not resemble any known transcription factor binding site. Besides, this new motif is present in 77% of the 39 V1R promoter regions and in 52% of the 198 OR promoter regions analyzed, preferentially concentrated near the TSSs. Interestingly, binding assays indicate that this new motif interacts with nuclear proteins prepared from the vomeronasal and the olfactory epithelia, but not from brain, liver and lung. Our results indicate that OR and V1R genes share common promoter elements that may be binding sites for specific olfactory transcription factors and may play a role in a common mechanism of olfactory and vomeronasal gene regulation

CONTEXTE: La maladie de Parkinson idiopathique (MPI), la démence à corps de Lewy (DCL) et la démence parkinsonienne (DP) sont des synucléinopathies. La dysfonction olfactive est reconnue comme étant une caractéristique principale de ces maladies. L'objectif de ce travail était d'évaluer et de comparer les seuils de détection olfactifs dans ces trois synucléinopathies (MPI, DP, DCL) chez des sujets âgés de plus de 65ans. Dans cette optique, trois études ont été menées utilisant des substances odorantes stimulant variablement les systèmes trigéminal et olfactif.MÉTHODES: les tests de détection des seuils olfactifs ont été réalisés chez (1) 89 patients ayant une MPI versus témoins sains, (2) 17 PD versus MPI et (3) 20 DCL versus PD versus témoins sains appariés, en utilisant l'alcool phényléthylique, le n-butanol et la pyridine comme stimuli. Les seuils de détection de ces 3 odorants ont été évalués à l'aide d'une série de dilution de facteur 2 et une procédure ascendante de choix forcé.Les données ont été analysées en utilisant des tests de Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon ou Kruskal-Wallis, la corrélation de Spearman et des analyses de covariance. Des analyses discriminantes ont également été réalisées.RÉSULTATS: (1) Les seuils de détection olfactifs sont capables de discriminer les patients MPI des témoins sains et les patients ayant une MPI bénigne de ceux avec autonomie déficiente. De plus, nous avons trouvé une subtile interaction entre les systèmes olfacto-trigeminal.(2) Nos résultats mettent en évidence, une absence de différence significative des seuils de détection des odorants entre MPI et PD appariés.(3) Nous avons constaté des différences significatives des seuils olfactifs entre patients ayant une DCL, une DP et témoins sains (p <0,001), avec une altération majeure de la sensibilité olfactive chez les patients atteints de DCL par rapport à ceux ayant une DP.Au travers des 3 études, une corrélation significative a été trouvée entre les seuils de détection des trois odorants.CONCLUSION: Ce travail souligne que la DCL peut être distinguée de la DP, la DP des sujets sains et la MPI des sujets sains en évaluant les seuils de détection des trois odorants. Cependant, l’absence de différence significative entre les seuils de détection olfactifs entre les MPI et DP soulève des doutes sur l'importance des tests de seuils de détection olfactive dans le suivi cognitif dans la MPI. D'autres recherches sur le dysfonctionnement olfactif dans les synucléinopathies sont nécessaires pour conforter nos résultats.MOTS CLÉS: Principales synucléinopathies (maladie Parkinson idiopathique, Démence parkinsonienne, Démence à corps de Lewy); seuils de détection des odorants; interactions des systèmes olfacto-trigéminal ; diagnostics positif et différentiel. / Idiopathic Parkinson disease (IPD), Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD) are synucleinopathies. Olfactory impairment is recognized as a characteristic feature of some synucleinopathies. The aim of this study was to assess and compare olfactory detection thresholds in these three synucleinopathies (IPD, PDD and DLB). For that purpose three studies were conducted: (1) Elderly with IPD matched to healthy controls, (2) IPD versus PPD and (3) between DLB, PDD and healthy controls using odor stimuli that variably trigger nasal trigeminal and olfactory systems.METHODS: Olfactory thresholds tests were performed in 89 IPD patients aged over 65 compared to paired matched healthy controls, in 17 IPD versus and matched PDD patients and in 20 LDB patients versus PDD patients versus matched healthy controls, using Phenyl-ethyl alcohol, n-Butanol and Pyridine as stimuli. Detection thresholds for these 3 odorants were assessed using an ascending staircase factor-2 odor dilutions series and a binary forced-choice procedure. Participants were priory evaluated by experimented physicians.Data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon or Kruskal-Wallis tests, Spearman correlation and covariance analyses. Discriminant analyses were also carried out to predict and classify the three participants’ groups in the third study.RESULTS: (1) Olfactory detection thresholds are able to discriminate elderly IPD from healthy controls, with a fair detection thresholds performance for pyridine compared to the two other odorants; and the ability to distinguish benign IPD patients with good autonomy from those with impaired autonomy (malign IPD). Moreover, we found subtle olfacto-trigeminal systems interaction.(2) Our results highlight no significant difference on odor detection threshold between elderly IPD compared with matched PDD patients.(3) We found significant odor thresholds differences between LBD patients, PDD patients and healthy controls (all p-values < 0.001), with also a significant poor sense of smell in DLB patients compared to moderate PDD patients. A plain differentiation between the three groups was confirmed by standardized canonical discriminant analyses.Through the 3 studies, a significant correlation was found between the odor detection thresholds.CONCLUSION: This work highlights that DLB can be distinguished from PDD, PDD from healthy controls and IPD from healthy controls by assessing odors (PEA, n-butanol, pyridine) detection thresholds. However, the lack of difference between olfactory thresholds between IPD and PDD raises doubts on the importance of olfactory thresholds tests in the cognitive follow-up of patients with IPD.Further investigations of olfactory dysfunction in patients with synucleinopathies are needed to confirm our results.KEYWORDS: idiopathic Parkinson disease; Parkinson's disease dementia ; Dementia with Lewy bodies; odor detection thresholds; chemonasal trigeminal and olfactory systems interactions; clinical diagnosis.

L’humain moderne vit une transformation de son environnement et de son mode de vie qui impactent la façon dont il peut vivre des expériences de nature au quotidien. Or, ces expériences de nature sont d'une grande importance pour le bien-être et la santé des individus. Ce sont des phénomènes complexes, ancrés dans un contexte environnemental, mais aussi socio-culturel, qui reposent sur des composantes étroitement mêlées que sont les émotions, les souvenirs, les connaissances, mais aussi tous les stimuli sensoriels perçus. Parmi les sens mobilisés, l’odorat, de par son importance mémorielle et émotionnelle, semble jouer un rôle à part dans la relation que tisse l’humain à la nature. C’est à ce rôle de l’olfaction dans l’expérience de nature, à cette part olfactive de l’expérience, que s’intéresse cette thèse s’articulant autour de trois axes de recherches et de réflexion. Dans un premier chapitre, ce manuscrit aborde comment caractériser la part olfactive de l’expérience de nature d’un point de vue individuel. La réflexion de ce chapitre se base sur la mise en œuvre et l’analyse des réponses à un questionnaire articulant entre eux l’olfaction, l’identité et les usages sensoriels d’espaces de nature déclarés par les individus. Dans le deuxième chapitre, c’est la façon dont l’expérience olfactive de nature s’ancre dans un environnement et un contexte qui est abordée, et comment cet ancrage influence la façon dont l’individu vit et décrit son expérience olfactive. La réflexion de ce chapitre s’appuie sur des témoignages recueillis lors de parcours olfactifs commentés et des questionnaires in situ. Enfin, en se basant sur les résultats des études précédentes, le troisième et dernier chapitre s’intéresse à la façon dont l’expérience olfactive de nature peut avoir un rôle transformateur sur l’individu dans le cadre particulier des environnements restaurateurs. En guise de conclusion, ce manuscrit aborde des réflexions, des ouvertures théoriques et pratiques, et des applications que peuvent apporter les résultats du travail de thèse, notamment la place que le sensoriel, l’incarné et l’olfactif pourraient prendre à l’avenir dans la façon de penser et d’enrichir l’expérience de nature. / Modern humans are currently experiencing a transformation of their environment and of their way of life that are impacting the way they can experience nature in their daily life. These experiences of nature are of great importance for the well-being and health of individuals. They are complex phenomena, anchored in an environmental context, but also socio-cultural, which are based on closely intertwined components that are emotions, memories, knowledge, but also all the sensory stimuli perceived by the human body. Among the senses mobilized, the sense of smell, by its memory and emotional importance, seems to play a singular part in the relationship that weaves the human to nature. The work conducted in this thesis, articulating around three axes of research and reflection, concerns this role of the olfaction in the experience of nature. In a first chapter, we discuss how to characterize the olfactory part of the experience of nature from an individual point of view. The thought developed in this chapter is based on the implementation and the analysis of the answers from a questionnaire linking together the olfaction, the identity and the sensory uses of spaces of nature declared by the individuals. In the second chapter, we addressed how the olfactory nature experience is embedded in an environment and in context, and how this anchor influences how the individual lives and describes their olfactory experience. The reflection of this chapter is based on testimonies gathered from commented olfactory walks and in situ questionnaires. Finally, based on the results of previous studies, in the third and last chapter of this thesis, we focus on how the olfactory experience of nature can have a transformative role for the individual, and particularly in the context of restorative environment. To conclude, we discuss the theoretical and practical openings, and applications that the results of the thesis work can bring, and particularly the place that sensory, embodied and olfactory experiences might take in the future in the way of thinking and enriching experiences of nature.

Molécules du goût et odeurs se fixent sur des récepteurs dits gustatifs et olfactifs, présents dans la bouche et le nez. Ils sont donc en contact avec le monde environnant. Toutefois, on les trouve également dans des organes isolés de l’extérieur, comme le pancréas ou le cerveau, où ils ne sont plus impliqués dans la détection du non-soi. Ils y régulent la glycémie ou l’activation du système immunitaire. Dans le cerveau, leurs rôles demeurent mystérieux. Mon travail a consisté à déterminer: 1) si, et où les récepteurs gustatifs et olfactifs sont présents dans le cerveau humain, 2) quand, où et pourquoi les récepteurs olfactifs sont présents dans le cerveau de souris et 3) si une maladie comme Alzheimer peut modifier leur expression. Mes résultats montrent qu’ils sont présents dans l’ensemble du cerveau humain et particulièrement dans le «cerveau émotionnel». De plus, le cerveau de souris «Alzheimer» surexprime des récepteurs olfactifs, notamment dans les neurones. Le cerveau est donc capable de goûter et sentir son monde intérieur. On peut imaginer que ces récepteurs jouent un rôle dans la détection de la maladie et, qui sait, qu’ils participent à la lutte contre ses effets néfastes. / Taste molecules and odours bind to so-called gustatory and olfactory receptors present in the mouth and nose. They are therefore in contact with the surrounding world. However, they are also found in organs isolated from the outside, such as the pancreas or brain, where they are no longer involved in the detection of non-self. They regulate blood sugar levels or the activation of the immune system. In the brain, their roles remain mysterious. My work consisted in determining: 1) if, and where, taste and smell receptors are present in the human brain, 2) when, where and why smell receptors are present in the mouse brain, and 3) whether a disease like Alzheimer's can change their expression. My results show that they are present in the entire human brain and particularly in the "emotional brain". In addition, the brains of "Alzheimer" mice overexpress olfactory receptors, particularly in neurons. The brain is therefore able to taste and feel its inner world. It is conceivable that these receptors play a role in detecting the disease and, who knows, in combating its harmful effects.

<p>This thesis describes that it is possible to drive synthetic emotions of an interface agent with an electronic nose system developed at AASS. The e-Nose can be used for quality control, and the detected distortion from a known smell sensation prototype is interpreted to a 3D-representation of emotional states, which in turn points to a set of pre-defined muscle contractions. This extension of a rule based motivation system, which we call Facial Expression Driver, is incorporated to a model for sensor fusion with active perception, to provide a general design for a more complex system with additional senses. To be consistent with the biologically inspired sensor fusion model a muscle based animated facial model was chosen as a test bed for the expression of current emotion. The social agent’s facial expressions demonstrate its tolerance to the detected distortion in order to manipulate the user to restore the system to functional balance. Only a few of the known projects use chemically based sensing to drive a face in real-time, whether they are virtual characters or animatronics. This work may inspire a future android implementation of a head with electro active polymers as synthetic facial muscles.</p>