In this dissertation, I defend the claim that realism – that is, a theory committed to an ontology of universals and particulars – is a more viable theory than any of the others adopted in order solve to the problem of universals. I begin in chapter 1 by setting out a method for comparing the various theories offered as solutions to this problem that is based primarily on a preference for those theories that exhibit greater ontological parsimony. In developing this method I endorse rather than reject (as is standard for realists to do) Quine’s criterion of ontological commitment. In chapter 2, I utilize the aforementioned method of theory comparison to argue for the greater comparative viability of realism over each of its primary competitors. In chapter 3, I set out and offer a solution to the “problem of instantiation”, which has traditionally been taken to be the most difficult problem for realists to solve. Finally, in chapter 4, I discuss two remaining issues that face the sort of “Quinean” realism that I prefer: (1) the ability of this version of realism to accommodate the traditional realist distinction between universals and particulars, and (2) the ability of this version of realism to account for “relational facts” while maintaining its greater comparative viability over its competitors. / text

This thesis is an examination of Bertrand Russell's realist "bundle theory of particulars". In Russell's earlier work, the need to explain the unity and individuality of objects compelled him to accept particulars as well as universals as ultimate kinds of reality. Nevertheless, in carrying out his efforts to economize his ontology, he discovered he could not reduce properties to particulars, because there are some relations that resist nominalistic explanation, but particulars could be reduced to bundles of qualities. In this thesis, I show that the realist 'bundle theory' not only reduces the kinds of ultimate reality to one, i.e., to universal qualities, but also serves all of the purposes for which bare particulars were originally required. Specifically. I examine what I take to be the major criticisms leveled against the realist 'bundle theory': the problem of individuation, the problem of necessity, and the problem of analyticity. I defend the strength and consistency of Russell's theory and argue that it can answer to the objections. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In separating the Form from its particulars, Plato is left with the task of describing the way in which they are related to one another. One possible way of construing this relation is to suppose that particulars receive a share ofthe Form. The discussion between Parmenides and Socrates, in the Parmenides 131 a9-e3, interprets this sharing in a material sense: either the whole of the Form is received by each particular, or part of the Form is received by each particular. This disjunction turns out to be a destructive dilemma -the socalled Dilemma of Participation. The three main sections ofthis work study in detail the Dilemma of Participation, as it is presented in the Parmenides. The first section considers the disjunct that the whole of the Form is received by each particular (13 la9-b2). By using a system of classical extensional mereology, it is demonstrated that Parmenides' reductio ad absurdum of this disjunct is deductively valid. The second section deals with Socrates' objection to this argument (which he makes in the guise of the Day Analogy), and Parmenides' response to the objection (which he makes in the guise ofthe Sail Analogy) (131 b3-c4). The validity of Parmenides' response depends on the sense of"day" Socrates intends in the Day Analogy. It is argued (against S. Panagiotou) that there is a sense of "day" that makes Parmenides' response invalid. The third section considers the disjunct that part of the Form is received by each particular (131 c5-e3). Two current interpretations of this disjunct (that ofT. Scaltsas and R. E. Allen) are recounted and critiqued, and a new interpretation is proposed (an interpretation based partially on that of Proclus, and under which Parmenides' argument against this disjunct is valid). / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In The Bounds of Sense, Strawson presents what he considers a major Kantian contribution to the analytic philosophy. This contribution corresponds to Kant‟s attempt to establish the general possible limits to the experience and therefore also to limit our use of concepts. According to the principle of significance, the limits of experience are limits to the significant use of concepts. In Individuals, Strawson develops the metaphysical project and takes into account many of the positive aspects found in Kant‟s theory, as it is the case of the empiricist principle of significance. In this metaphysical project, Strawson is interested in clarifying our thinking about the world this is made possible by the use of a single conceptual scheme. In the conceptual scheme the concepts are interconnected and these are the concepts that allow us to access things in the world. In his ontology a necessary condition for maintaining the conceptual scheme is the undisputed acceptance of the continued existence of some objects, Thus, Strawson is faced with the skeptic who doubts the continued existence of material bodies. The transcendental argument used in Individuals to show that skeptical doubt is incoherent he received criticism such as Barry Stroud. For Stroud the transcendental argument implies certain verificationism to assert the continued existence of particulars, but to accept the verificationism is to refute directly the skeptic, so that the transcendental argument becomes insufficient to refute skepticism. In Skepticism and Naturalism, Strawson accepts Stroud‟s criticism and he found in naturalism a way not to refute the skeptic, but just leave it aside, as it is natural to believe in the existence of material bodies and people. By embracing naturalism, Strawson gets closer of the realistic. He believes we can know things directly as they really are. This is possible because our sense perception is always permeated by concepts, so that, our sensitive knowledge is always conceptual. The concepts are learned in their practice of using, by observing the behavior of other users. Wherefore, when Strawson approaches Wittgenstein he gives a step ahead of Kant and he states that the concepts limit what we can know. Therefore, the basic features for a consistent conception of experience are agency and society and the limits to our knowledge are always set by the language. / Em The Bounds of Sense, Strawson apresenta o que considera como a grande contribuição kantiana para a filosofia analítica. Essa contribuição corresponde à tentativa de Kant em estabelecer os limites gerais possíveis para a experiência e, consequentemente, limitar também o uso que fazemos dos conceitos. De acordo com o princípio da significatividade, os limites da experiência são os limites para o uso significativo dos conceitos. Nos Individuals, Strawson desenvolve o projeto metafísico e leva em consideração muitos dos aspectos positivos encontrados na teoria de Kant, como é o caso do princípio empirista da significatividade. Neste projeto metafísico, Strawson tem o interesse de elucidar o nosso pensamento sobre o mundo, o que se torna possível pelo uso de um esquema conceitual único. No esquema conceitual, os conceitos encontram-se interligados entre si e são esses conceitos que nos possibilitam ter acesso às coisas no mundo. Na sua ontologia, uma condição necessária para a manutenção do esquema conceitual é a aceitação incontestável da existência contínua de alguns objetos. Com isso, Strawson depara-se com o cético que põe em dúvida a existência contínua dos corpos materiais. O argumento transcendental utilizado nos Individuals, para mostrar que a dúvida cética é incoerente, recebeu críticas tais como a de Barry Stroud. Para Stroud, o argumento transcendental implica certo verificacionismo para afirmar a existência contínua dos particulares, mas aceitar o verificacionismo já é refutar diretamente o cético, de modo que o argumento transcendental torna-se insuficiente para refutar o ceticismo. Em Ceticismo e Naturalismo, Strawson aceita a crítica de Stroud e encontra, no naturalismo, uma maneira de não refutar o cético, mas simplesmente deixá-lo de lado, já que é natural crer na existência dos corpos materiais e das pessoas. Ao adotar o naturalismo, Strawson aproxima-se ainda mais dos realistas. Ele considera que podemos conhecer as coisas diretamente como elas realmente são. Isso torna-se possível porque a nossa percepção sensível é sempre permeada por conceitos, de modo que o nosso conhecimento sensível é sempre conceitual. Os conceitos são apreendidos na sua prática de uso, através da observação do comportamento dos demais usuários. Desse modo, ao se aproximar de Wittgenstein, Strawson dá um passo a frente de Kant e afirma que os conceitos limitam aquilo que podemos conhecer. Assim, os traços fundamentais para uma concepção coerente de experiência são agência e sociedade, sendo que os limites para o nosso conhecimento são sempre estabelecidos pela linguagem.

In this article, the author tells us about the precedent along with its characteristics, as well as its role in the law. He tells us, also, about the situation of a precedent ruled by an International Court and its implications in the domestic law of each country. Likewise, he defines what is not a precedent and points us how effective is in the Law. Finally, he points us about the particularity and the universalism in the precedents, then he gave us his final thought of this theme. / En el presente artículo, el autor nos habla acerca del precedente y sus características, así como de su papel en el Derecho. Asimismo, profundiza la situación de un precedente emitido por una Corte Internacional y sus implicancias en el derecho interno de cada país. Asimismo, define qué no es un precedente y nos señala cuál es su eficacia en el Derecho. Finalmente, nos menciona acerca de la particularidad y el universalismo en los precedentes, para luego dar su reflexión final sobre el tema.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The present dissertation purports to analyze the relationship between the notions of reference and ontology in the Peter Frederick Strawson‟s philosophy. Strawson wants to defend an ontological realism, in which the basic entities are material bodies. We have occupied ourselves with the analysis of the role of identifying reference in his argumentation. In the first Chapter, we analyze how the ontological problem is formulated by Strawson, within ordinary language. The phrase Linguistic Turn‟ is used to denote the set of issues around this topic. Our analysis concluded that ordinary language is the most general and pervasive language, which also has the means necessary for metaphysical researches. In the second Chapter, we deal with the elucidation of the conditions in which an identifying reference is successfully made. The analysis showed that, when referring to particulars, to consider the contextual requirements it is necessary to make a successfully identifying reference, which necessarily include spatio-temporal elements this condition is not necessary when we refer identifyingly to general things. Thus, we use the term spatio-temporal particulars to designate a class of items, which are, in a philosophical sense, concretes. In the Third Chapter, we examine how Strawson uses the notion of identifying reference to get the notions of independent and basic, which ought to be attached to the notion of materials bodies, if the philosopher intends to be a metaphysical realist. Through the analysis of the concept of reference, Strawson comes to the notion of a unified framework of knowledge of particulars, which is necessary for us to refer non-demonstratively to spatio-temporal particulars. However, a condition of this unity is the independent existence of spatio-temporal particulars. Although material bodies are basic in the category of spatio-temporal particulars, the identification of particulars of various subcategories rests on the identification of material objects. In the end, discuss some criticisms of Strawson‟s arguments and make another argument in support of Strawson‟s argument. / A presente dissertação tem como objetivo analisar a relação entre as noções de referência e ontologia na filosofia de Peter Frederick Strawson. Strawson pretende defender uma ontologia realista, onde suas entidades básicas são objetos materiais e pessoas, assim, ocupamo-nos em elucidar o papel que a noção de referência identificadora cumpre nessa argumentação. No primeiro Capítulo, analisamos o modo como o problema ontológico é formulado, por Strawson, no âmago da linguagem ordinária. A expressão Giro Linguístico‟ é tomada para designar o conjunto de questões em torno desse tópico. Nossas análises obtiveram como conclusão que a linguagem ordinária é a mais geral e penetrante, a qual também disporia dos meios necessários para as investigações de caráter metafísico. No segundo Capítulo, ocupamo-nos com a elucidação das condições em que uma referência identificadora ocorre com sucesso. As análises mostraram que, quando nos referimos a particulares, é necessário, para o sucesso em referir, a consideração de requerimentos contextuais, os quais necessariamente incluem aspectos espaços-temporais e são dispensáveis na maioria das referências a entidades gerais. Destarte, passamos a usar o termo particulares espaço-temporais‟ para designar um conjunto de itens, os quais seriam, num sentido filosófico, concretos. No terceiro Capítulo, analisamos o modo como Strawson usa a noção de referência identificadora para chegar até as noções de independente e básico, as quais devem estar relacionadas com a noção de objetos materiais, caso o filósofo pretenda defender um realismo metafísico. Através das análises da noção de referência, Strawson chega até a noção de quadro unitário de conhecimento de particulares, o qual é necessário para que possamos referir não-demonstrativamente para particulares espaço-temporais. Porém, uma condição dessa unidade consiste na existência independente de particulares espaço-temporais. Não obstante, objetos materiais são básicos na categoria de particulares espaço-temporais, pois, a identificação de particulares de várias subcategorias descansa sobre a identificação de objetos materiais. No final, serão analisadas algumas críticas aos argumentos de Strawson e será indicada a possibilidade da formulação de outro argumento em suporte da argumentação de Strawson.

Francis Schaeffer presented a Christian world and life-view encompassing the totality of reality as an alternative to a fragmented view of reality. Refinements of dualism are examined from within a theological context giving substance to his understanding of modern world and life-view trends. Dualisms may be traced from the dawn of history of religion. It was Thomas Aquinas who profoundly influenced Western thought into a secular compartment through a synthesis of Christian dogma with Aristotelian presuppositions. The reign of the sacred diminished and a predominantly secular pathway may be traced through disciplines such as philosophy, arts, science and theology. This dissertation suggests that a dualistic analysis of reality is limited in its application. A model is suggested which traces all of reality to its ultimate source, God. The Fall brought about a dialectic which is found within the totality of a Christian world and life-view. / Philosophy, Practical & Sytematic Theology / M. Th. (Systematic Theology.

本論文在引介並評析德國社會學家諾爾紐曼（Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann）的「沉默 螺旋論」（the Theory of the Spiral of Silence ）。全文凡五萬餘字，共分六章 、廿三節，各章大要如次： 第一章，緒論：說明本研究動機，臚列研究問題，並略述研究方法和限制。 第二章，螺旋論：介紹此理論的概念和變項，在民意、傳播與社會理論領域所衍生的 假設及主要代表模式；界定應用範圍並依理論特質予以定位；摘要諾氏檢驗此理論所 作的研究。 第三章，沉默螺旋論溯源：據諾氏對此理論由來的說明並藉墨頓（R.K.Merton）研究 社會學理論史的方法，來追溯螺旋論的源流。 第四章，沉默螺旋之沉默與迴響：摘要其他學者所作的有關研究；分別述析此理論引 起的共鳴、所面臨的挑戰以及諾氏的回應。 第五章，沉默螺旋「典範」：簡介孔思（Thomass Kunn）的自然科學沿革結構；比較沉默螺旋論發展歷程與此結構之異同；沉默螺旋論 蔚為典範之理由。 第六章，結論：以科學哲學的角度總評沉默螺旋論之得失；建議未來研究的方向。

Francis Schaeffer presented a Christian world and life-view encompassing the totality of reality as an alternative to a fragmented view of reality. Refinements of dualism are examined from within a theological context giving substance to his understanding of modern world and life-view trends. Dualisms may be traced from the dawn of history of religion. It was Thomas Aquinas who profoundly influenced Western thought into a secular compartment through a synthesis of Christian dogma with Aristotelian presuppositions. The reign of the sacred diminished and a predominantly secular pathway may be traced through disciplines such as philosophy, arts, science and theology. This dissertation suggests that a dualistic analysis of reality is limited in its application. A model is suggested which traces all of reality to its ultimate source, God. The Fall brought about a dialectic which is found within the totality of a Christian world and life-view. / Philosophy, Practical and Sytematic Theology / M. Th. (Systematic Theology.

Cette thèse porte sur le développement d’une nouvelle technique de modélisation des problèmes IFS utilisant les méthodes particulaires. Ce travail s’inscrit dans la continuité des travaux de recherche de l’équipe biomécanique du LAMIH, concernant la compréhension du comportement de l’os humain dans son environnement de moelle osseuse. La méthode SPH a été utilisée pour la modélisation des travées osseuses, supposées dans une première approche comme des solides élastiques. La méthode LB a été développée pour la modélisation des écoulements de moelle considérée comme un fluide visqueux incompressible. L’efficacité et la performance de ces deux méthodes ont été démontrées grâce aux benchmarks académiques évalués et les résultats comparés à ceux de la littérature ou ceux obtenus par des logiciels commerciaux. A l’issue d’une revue de l’état de l’art des techniques de couplage fluide-structure, une approche partitionnée en temps a été choisie, permettant d’utiliser deux codes distincts basés sur des algorithmes de résolution de type dynamique explicite. La discrétisation spatiale est faite par une technique spécifique basée sur les domaines fictifs, cette technique est très efficace car elle ne nécessite pas de rediscrétisation des domaines. L’approche de couplage développée a été appliquée à des benchmarks académiques ainsi qu’à une application en biomécanique, ayant permis d’aboutir à des résultats numériques satisfaisants. Plusieurs pistes d’amélioration sont maintenant nécessaires afin d’aller vers des modélisations plus biofidèles telles que la prise en compte du contact et de l’endommagement. / The objective of this thesis is the development of a new technique for the FSI problems modelling using particulars methods. This work is in the continuity of the LAMIH biomechanics team research works, regarding the comprehension of behavior of bone in its environment of marrow. The SPH method was used for the trabeculae modelling, supposed in a first attempt as an elastic solid. The LB method was developed for the marrow flow modelling considered as a viscous incompressible liquid. The efficacy and performance of these two methods were demonstrated using academics benchmarks which were evaluated and the results were compared of those of literature and of those obtained from commercials softwares. Following a bibliographic review of FSI coupling techniques, a partitioned approach in time was chosen, allowing the use of two separates codes, both based on a dynamic explicit algorithm resolution scheme. The special discretization was done based on a specific technique of fictional domain, this technique is very efficient because it doesn’t require an additional domain discretization. The coupling approach developed was applied on academic benchmarks and on a biomechanical application, leading to satisfactory numerical results. Many Improvement track are now necessary to go towards more biofidelic modeling as taking into account the contact and the damage.