A partir de uma abordagem institucionalista, com ênfase na Nova Economia Institucional de Douglass North e no conceito de path dependence, o estudo teve por objetivo compreender o papel das instituições locais na trajetória da agricultura do Vale do Taquari, com ênfase no processo de modernização nas décadas de 1970 e 1980, e com a emergência de políticas de desenvolvimento rural sustentável, a partir da década de 1990. A região está localizada no centro-leste do Rio Grande do Sul e se caracteriza por uma agricultura familiar implementada a partir de um processo de colonização por imigrantes europeus, em meados do século XIX. A partir da segunda metade do século XX, com a modernização da agricultura, profundas mudanças, para além do padrão técnico, provocaram transformações na dinâmica institucional local, imprimindo um novo padrão de produção e de relação com os mercados externos. Com a emergência da abordagem do desenvolvimento sustentável, a partir da década de 1990, e sua repercussão nas políticas públicas para a agricultura e o rural, e tomando-se o Pronaf como objeto, é analisado o grau de internalização dos princípios da sustentabilidade na dinâmica regional. Conclui-se que ao contrário do que ocorreu com as políticas modernizantes dos anos setenta, a região apresenta uma considerável impermeabilidade às políticas com viés da sustentabilidade. / From an institutionalist approach, emphasizing the New Institutional Economics of Douglass North and the concept of path dependence, the study aimed to understand the role of institutions in the path of Taquari Valley’s agriculture, with emphasis on the process of modernization in the 70s and 80s, and the emergence of policies for sustainable rural development from the 90s. The region is located in east-central of Rio Grande do Sul, the most meridional State from Brazil, and characterized by a family farming implemented as a process of colonization by European immigrants in the mid-nineteenth century. From the second half of the twentieth century with the modernization of agriculture, profound changes, in addition to the technical standard, led to changes in local institutional dynamics, giving a new pattern of production and relations with external markets. With the emergence of the sustainable development approach from the 90s and its implications for public policy for agriculture and rural development, and taking the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar (Pronaf) as the object, we analyzed the degree of internalization of sustainability principles in regional dynamics. We conclude that contrary to what happened with the modernizing policies of the seventies, the region presents a considerable impermeability to the policies with sustainable features.

A partir de uma abordagem institucionalista, com ênfase na Nova Economia Institucional de Douglass North e no conceito de path dependence, o estudo teve por objetivo compreender o papel das instituições locais na trajetória da agricultura do Vale do Taquari, com ênfase no processo de modernização nas décadas de 1970 e 1980, e com a emergência de políticas de desenvolvimento rural sustentável, a partir da década de 1990. A região está localizada no centro-leste do Rio Grande do Sul e se caracteriza por uma agricultura familiar implementada a partir de um processo de colonização por imigrantes europeus, em meados do século XIX. A partir da segunda metade do século XX, com a modernização da agricultura, profundas mudanças, para além do padrão técnico, provocaram transformações na dinâmica institucional local, imprimindo um novo padrão de produção e de relação com os mercados externos. Com a emergência da abordagem do desenvolvimento sustentável, a partir da década de 1990, e sua repercussão nas políticas públicas para a agricultura e o rural, e tomando-se o Pronaf como objeto, é analisado o grau de internalização dos princípios da sustentabilidade na dinâmica regional. Conclui-se que ao contrário do que ocorreu com as políticas modernizantes dos anos setenta, a região apresenta uma considerável impermeabilidade às políticas com viés da sustentabilidade. / From an institutionalist approach, emphasizing the New Institutional Economics of Douglass North and the concept of path dependence, the study aimed to understand the role of institutions in the path of Taquari Valley’s agriculture, with emphasis on the process of modernization in the 70s and 80s, and the emergence of policies for sustainable rural development from the 90s. The region is located in east-central of Rio Grande do Sul, the most meridional State from Brazil, and characterized by a family farming implemented as a process of colonization by European immigrants in the mid-nineteenth century. From the second half of the twentieth century with the modernization of agriculture, profound changes, in addition to the technical standard, led to changes in local institutional dynamics, giving a new pattern of production and relations with external markets. With the emergence of the sustainable development approach from the 90s and its implications for public policy for agriculture and rural development, and taking the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar (Pronaf) as the object, we analyzed the degree of internalization of sustainability principles in regional dynamics. We conclude that contrary to what happened with the modernizing policies of the seventies, the region presents a considerable impermeability to the policies with sustainable features.

O trabalho concentra-se sobre o critério do valor adicionado fiscal na repartição do ICMS, com o objetivo de verificar sua adequação como mecanismo de provisão de recursos financeiros a Municípios, no contexto do federalismo fiscal brasileiro. Mediante análise teórica, de dados de distribuição e legislação referente à repartição e ao ICMS, identificamos que o valor adicionado fiscal é gerador de enormes desigualdades de tratamento entre Municípios de porte equivalente e de oscilações brutais de valores de transferência de um para outro ano, mas, sobretudo, que é juridicamente inadequado à multiplicidade de locais de ocorrência de fatos geradores e a heterogeneidade do imposto que pretende repartir. Não atinge, assim, o propósito de medir a adição de valor em um território, nem o de conferir aos Municípios receitas em montante similar ao potencial de arrecadação de um imposto sobre valor adicionado municipal depurado dos efeitos de imunidades, isenções, diferimentos e substituições tributárias, que justificou sua criação. A permanência da utilização do critério do valor adicionado por décadas é apontada no trabalho como resultante de acomodações e ajustes institucionais, característicos de dependência de trajetória (path dependence), que, desrespeitando os limites jurídicos de regulamentação, disfarçam a inadequação do critério e perpetuam as desigualdades e instabilidades dele advindas. Justifica-se, assim, que atenções sejam voltadas à análise de alternativas à repartição do ICMS por outros meios que não o VAF e o aperfeiçoamento de seus mecanismos de regulação, caso permaneça sendo utilizado. / The Added Value Criteria (VAF) is used in Brazil for purposes of ICMS (A State tax on circulation of goods, communication and interstate and intercity transportation services) revenue sharing to cities. The data on how the VAT based tax sharing occurs shows that VAT is a source of inequalities in resource distribution to cities of equivalent population and oscillations in the amounts received by a given city along the years. Moreover and as the central hypothesis of this thesis, VAF, as defined in Brazilian legislation, is not suitable to the complexity of situations and places of occurrence of ICMS taxable events nor to the effects of ICMS on prices, being, thus, unable to measure the value added in each city territory and to protect the revenue sharing from the effects of ICMS exemptions, constitutional immunities, deferrals and tax substitutions. Being so, the VAT regulations, do not recreate the potential of a municipal VAT, falling short in accomplishing the purposes it was created for. In spite of its defects, VAT remains in use decades after its creation as a result of accommodations and institutional adjustments that can be explained by a path dependence trajectory that was, and still, is able to disguise its chronic inadequacies and to perpetuate the inequalities and instabilities arising out of such distribution criteria. Our conclusions on VAF justify the study of other alternatives for the ICMS revenue sharing, as well as attempts to improve the quality of VAT regulations.

A partir de uma abordagem institucionalista, com ênfase na Nova Economia Institucional de Douglass North e no conceito de path dependence, o estudo teve por objetivo compreender o papel das instituições locais na trajetória da agricultura do Vale do Taquari, com ênfase no processo de modernização nas décadas de 1970 e 1980, e com a emergência de políticas de desenvolvimento rural sustentável, a partir da década de 1990. A região está localizada no centro-leste do Rio Grande do Sul e se caracteriza por uma agricultura familiar implementada a partir de um processo de colonização por imigrantes europeus, em meados do século XIX. A partir da segunda metade do século XX, com a modernização da agricultura, profundas mudanças, para além do padrão técnico, provocaram transformações na dinâmica institucional local, imprimindo um novo padrão de produção e de relação com os mercados externos. Com a emergência da abordagem do desenvolvimento sustentável, a partir da década de 1990, e sua repercussão nas políticas públicas para a agricultura e o rural, e tomando-se o Pronaf como objeto, é analisado o grau de internalização dos princípios da sustentabilidade na dinâmica regional. Conclui-se que ao contrário do que ocorreu com as políticas modernizantes dos anos setenta, a região apresenta uma considerável impermeabilidade às políticas com viés da sustentabilidade. / From an institutionalist approach, emphasizing the New Institutional Economics of Douglass North and the concept of path dependence, the study aimed to understand the role of institutions in the path of Taquari Valley’s agriculture, with emphasis on the process of modernization in the 70s and 80s, and the emergence of policies for sustainable rural development from the 90s. The region is located in east-central of Rio Grande do Sul, the most meridional State from Brazil, and characterized by a family farming implemented as a process of colonization by European immigrants in the mid-nineteenth century. From the second half of the twentieth century with the modernization of agriculture, profound changes, in addition to the technical standard, led to changes in local institutional dynamics, giving a new pattern of production and relations with external markets. With the emergence of the sustainable development approach from the 90s and its implications for public policy for agriculture and rural development, and taking the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar (Pronaf) as the object, we analyzed the degree of internalization of sustainability principles in regional dynamics. We conclude that contrary to what happened with the modernizing policies of the seventies, the region presents a considerable impermeability to the policies with sustainable features.

This paper is designed to analyse the situation regarding the attempt to implement democracy in Egypt and why it failed. Theories regarding democratic transition and consolidation is acting as scientific instruments to carry out this case study. This essay directs its focus on several key factors that has contributed to the prevention of democratic reforms. The theory concerning path dependence is used to compliment the remaining theories to distinguish vital historic aspects to this issue. Key factors such as the Muslim brotherhood, the Egyptian military and regime, as well as the liberal movement is examined in this paper to illuminate their respective contribution to this situation. The conclusion of this paper focuses on the military, unwilling to surrender its power, along with the religiously fundamental brotherhood, growing rapidly. A democratic transition was in the making, only to be shut down by the military, regaining its former power. Although chaotic and military-biased reforms continued, they were far from democratic.  Because of all the key factors not sharing any political ideals, the situation has come to an abrupt halt regarding a democratisation process. The democratic ideal has become worn among the protestors and another try at a democratic transition is far from reality.

The thesis deals with analysis of conceptual-methodological issues examined in the framework of post-keynesian economics. The author´s goal is to supply a solution to the problem of a definition of determinism/non-determinism for both deterministic and stochastic systems and also to the problem of the prevailing confusion which surrounds the notion of reversibility/irreversibility in both path-dependent and traditional-equilibrist systems. The author regards the determinism/non-determinism problem as essentially linked to the problem of a definition of fundamental uncertainty. The key issues are being identified in the "problem of a generator of endogenous shocks" and the "selection - creation problem". Finding solutions to these enables us to take a stand on the validity/invalidity of the classical dichotomy, in the eyes of the author. Davidson´s interpretation of ergodicity and O´Donnell´s critique of this are being presented and, drawing on the latter, along with Álvarez-Ehnts´ critique, the author rejects a simplifying pattern of Davidson´s, according to which neoclassical economics is based on the ergodic axiom. The author suggests a solution to the "selection - creation problem" consisting in distinguishing epistemological determinism from ontological determinism on the one hand, and epistemological determinism from epistemological non-determinism on the other hand. While selection is a characteristic feature of epistemological determinism and, in effect, the realm of "fundamental certainty", creation is referred to by the author as a characteristic feature of epistemological non-determinism, i. e., in effect, the realm of fundamental uncertainty. The author regards the "problem of a generator of endogenous shocks" a self-contradictory notion, based on the principle of causality and the law of non-contradiction, and suggests a solution to the problem consisting in rejection of the concept of shock endogeneity. At the same time, the author rejects Davidson´s "fundamental neoclassical article of faith" rhetoric, based on the first cause argument implied by the principle of causality. In opposition to Davidson, the author regards fundamental uncertainty being of a basically epistemological nature, consisting in our ignorance of the "ultimate law of change", the "Devine formula". Unlike O´Donnell, however, who puts stress on the element of epistemological uncertainty in his epistemological approach to uncertainty, the author also puts stress on the element of ontological certainty, consisting in our knowledge of the existence of the "Devine formula", apart from our epistemological uncertainty.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Applied Mathematics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Functional Itˆo calculus is based on an extension of the classical Itˆo calculus to functionals depending on the entire past evolution of the underlying paths and not only on its current value. The calculus builds on F¨ollmer’s deterministic proof of the Itˆo formula Föllmer (1981) and a notion of pathwise functional derivative recently proposed by Dupire (2019). There are no smoothness assumptions required on the functionals, however, they are required to possess certain directional derivatives which may be computed pathwise, see Cont and Fournié (2013); Schied and Voloshchenko (2016a); Cont (2012). In this project we revise the functional Itô calculus together with the notion of quadratic variation. We compute the pathwise change of variable formula utilizing the functional Itô calculus and the quadratic variation notion. We study the martingale representation for the case of weak derivatives, we allow the vertical operator, rX, to operate on continuous functionals on the space of square-integrable Ft-martingales with zero initial value. We approximate the hedging strategy, H, for the case of path-dependent functionals, with Lipschitz continuous coefficients. We study some hedging strategies on the class of discounted market models satisfying the quadratic variation and the non-degeneracy properties. In the classical case of the Black-Scholes, Greeks are an important part of risk-management so we compute Greeks of the price given by path-dependent functionals. Lastly we show that they relate to the classical case in the form of examples. / NRF and AIMS-SA

Ökad efterfrågan på produkter och varor kräver stora mängder råmaterial för produktion och distribution, vilket har inverkan på global och lokal miljö och klimat. Det som tillverkas kommer också att bli avfall, vilket har ytterligare inverkan på miljö och klimat. Det finns olika strategier för att hantera avfall med olika mycket miljöpåverkan och avfallshierarkin är en indikator som rangordnar strategier för hanteringen och anger vilka metoder som är att föredra ur miljösynpunkt. Avfallshierarkin är lagstadgat i EU och medlemsnationerna bör efterleva den. Avfallshantering styrs ofta på lokal nivå och eftersom lokala förutsättningar kan variera, påverkar det vilka strategier som städer väljer. Syftet med studien var att jämföra två städer (Malmö, Sverige och Ljubljana, Slovenien) för att se hur deras avfallshantering, i relation till avfallshierarkin, utvecklats samt att jämföra hur bakomliggande drivkrafter påverkat de strategier som respektive stad valt. Genom statistisk innehållsanalys av avfallsmängder och behandlingsmetoder i de båda städerna och en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av städernas policydokument, fann vi att Ljubljana gjort en större utveckling under undersökt tidsperiod. De möjliga förklaringarna var att Ljubljana haft extern finansiering, tydliga målsättningar, samt att de inte varit lika inlåsta i gamla strategier som Malmö. Indikationer som dessa kan underlätta förbättrad avfallshantering och därmed minska avfallets klimat- och miljöpåverkan. / Increased demand on products and goods requires large quantities of raw materials for production and distribution, which has effects on global and local environment and climate. Things that are made will also become waste, which has even more effects on the environment and climate. There are different strategies for waste management with different amounts of environmental impact and the waste hierarchy is one indicator that ranks strategies for waste management and states which methods that are preferred from an environmental standpoint. The waste hierarchy is legally stated in the EU and the member states should comply with it. Waste management is usually run from local level, and since the local conditions may vary, that may have effects on which strategies a city chooses. The purpose of this study was to compare two cities (Malmö, Sweden and Ljubljana, Slovenia) to see how their waste management developed in relation to the waste hierarchy, and to compare how underlying incentives affected the choice of strategies for each city. With statistical content analysis of waste quantities and treatment methods in both cities and qualitative content analysis of the cities policy documents, we found that Ljubljana made a bigger development under our measured period. Possible explanations were that Ljubljana had external financing, clearly set goals, and that they were less locked in old strategies compared to Malmö. These sorts of indicators may ease improvement of waste management and thus mitigate the effects that waste has on climate and environment.

Over the past decade, a third wave of autocratisation has stormed the world, hitting democracies and autocracies alike. The ongoing democratic backsliding is attributed to a range of factors. From “executive aggrandisement” and strategic manipulation of elections to "autocratic lawfare”. Such autocratic tendencies are contributing to autocratisation in dominant party regimes in Africa. If most dominant party systems are increasingly autocratising in Africa, then there is a problem with the dominant party structure that warrants academic inquiry. However, the literature on one-party dominance and democratic consolidation in Africa are a bit old, hence do not address the current debates on democratic backsliding in the continent. Botswana and Tanzania are interesting cases of autocratising dominant party systems because they have witnessed rapid erosion of democratic qualities over the decade. But what effects do these patterns of democratic backsliding have on the quality of democracy in dominant party systems in Africa? Employing a comparative research design (MSSD) and using historical institutionalism and the substantive democratic theory as well as relying on secondary data in Botswana and Tanzania (Mainly Afrobarometer surveys, V-Dem Index, CPI Index, Ibrahim Index of African Governance, and Freedom Index), this study explores this question within the framework of peace and development research. It analysed four variables: management of social tensions facing the regime, the scope of presidential power, governance performance, and the nature of the electoral competition. Findings suggest that a dominant party structure in Botswana and Tanzania creates conditions that erode the quality of democracy, hence democratic backsliding. Therefore, the thesis argues that autocratisation in Botswana and Tanzania suggests reproduction of one-party dominance at the expense of consolidation of substantive democracy. This way, a dominant party structure in Africa appears to be a peace and development research problem because it creates strong incentives for dominant parties to autocratise rather than democratise when challenged by a strong political opposition.

中國農村信用合作社屬於集體性質合作金融組織，以農業相關貸款為主要業務，前中國國務院總理朱鎔基在第九屆全國人大四次會議中強調「農信社是支持農村金融的主力軍」，農信社享有獨立法人資格並承擔推動農村金融發展責任，卻未履行應盡義務和金融功能，反而成為地方政府融通資金的「小金庫」。 本研究試圖解釋農信社的發展與改革，從制度角度探討其與地方政府、地方企業之間的互動關係。農信社成立於一九五零年代，自毛統治時期即扮演地方政府小金庫角色，改革開放後，中國政府嚴格禁止地方政府干預金融機構經營，並給予補貼及稅收優惠提升其營運績效，但農信社受制於歷史制度影響，被既有路徑鎖住無法擺脫過去包袱，導致其發展與改革始終處在出軌的狀態。 中國改革開放三十年，農信社歷經多次改革轉換依然被地方政府所掌控，本研究透過分析農信社內部黨系統成員名單與地方政企之間的重疊關係，觀察出地方政府如何躲避中央政策及法律限制，持續箝制農信社的發展與金融功能，試圖補充農信社相關文獻在此議題上的不足，並解釋農信社在地方—特別是以農業為主的貧困縣地區與地方政府和地方企業間的運作模式。 / Chinese Rural Credit Cooperatives (RCCs) is a collective-owned and cooperative financial institution, and its major business is to provide loans for agriculture-based projects. “The RCCs is the main force of agrian finance,” as such claimed by the former Chinese Premier Zhu, Rongji in the fourth session of the ninth National People’s Congress regarding the function and status of RCCs. Nonetheless, despite the RCCs is a separate legal entity and aims at promoting the development of agrian finance, it fails to do its work but becomes a private coffer of local governments. This study investigates the trajectory of development and reforms of RCCs first, and then explores the process from an institutional perspective by addressing the dynamic interactions between the RCCs, the local governments and the local enterprises. RCCs was first established in the 1950s, and has served as a private coffer for local governments since then. After launching the reform and opening-up policy in the late 1970s, the central government attempted to prohibit the local governments to intervene the operation of RCCs on the one hand, and provided fiscal subsidies as well as tax reliefs to RCCs on the other. Yet the operation of RCCs has been locked into the pre-existing institutional practices shaped in Mao’s era and been “out of track” regardless of various reform attemps by the central government. This study argues that the organizational overlap between the branches of Chinese Communism Party in the local governments and RCCs largely explains why local governments could survive those reform attemps and persistentally gained the control of RCCs in the past 30 years. By examining the name lists of the party branches in the local governments and RCCs, I demonstrate that the local governments transferred the control of RCCs from administrative system to party system, thus they successfully circumvented the constrains of administrative policies and rules in various reform attemps by the central government. The finding also helps to explore the dynamic patterns of interaction among the local governments, RCCs, and local enterprises in those areas of agriculture-based economy, thus contributes to fill this gap in the literature of state-business research in China studies.