Polímeros com grupos azobenzênicos exibindo fotoisomerização reversível trans-cis-trans tem sido usado para armazenamento óptico, chaves ópticas e produção de grades de relevo. A fotoisomerização produzida por luz linearmente polarizada cria uma orientação molecular perpendicular a polarização da luz (hole-burning angular) que induz a birrefringência na amostra. Neste trabalho, medimos a birrefringência foto induzida em filmes de poliestireno dopado com corante vermelho disperso 1 (DR1) em função da temperatura. A amplitude da birrefringência aumenta com a temperatura entre 20 e 180 K, atinge um máximo e diminui a zero próximo da temperatura de transição vítrea do polímero, a qual é da ordem de 373 K. A amplitude da birrefringência é proporcional a concentração de DR1 e também depende da história térmica da amostra. Propõe-se um modelo teórico que leva em conta a mudança de volume livre do polímero com a temperatura, representando um passo além dos modelos conhecidos. Assumimos que as moléculas de DR1 ocupam cavidades do polímero e a função distribuição Gama é usada para descrever a distribuição dos volumes das cavidades, enquanto a função Gaussiana descreve as flutuações térmicas de volume em torno de seu valor médio. A isomerização das moléculas de DR1 só podem ocorrer em cavidades com volume maior que um valor crítico. A comparação entre o modelo e os dados experimentais mostra uma razoável concordância. O modelo prevê corretamente a dependência da birrefringência com o tempo, com a temperatura e com a história térmica da amostra, já que o volume livre do polímero depende dessa história. / Polymers with azobenzene groups exhibiting reversible trans-cis-trans photoisomerization characteristics have been used for optical storage, optical switching and production of surface relief gratings. The photoisomerization produced by a linearly polarized light leads to a molecular orientation perpendicular to the light polarization (angular hole burning), which induces a birefringence on the sample. In this work we report on the photoisomerization of films of polystyrene (PS) doped with disperse red 1 (DR1), performed at various temperatures. The birefringence amplitude rises with temperature from 10 to 270 K, goes through a maximum and decays to zero near the polystyrene transition temperature, which is 370 K. The birefringence amplitude, at a given temperature, is proportional to the DR1 content and also depends on the sample thermal history. We proposed a model that accounts for the change in free volume of the polymer with temperature though representing an improvement to well-known models. We assume that the azobenzene group is inside a local free volume and the Gamma distribution function is used to describe a local free volume distribution in the sample while the Gaussian distribution function gives the thermal free-volume fluctuation. Isomerization of the azobenzene group only occurs if the local free volume is larger than a critical value. Comparison with the experimental data shows that the model explains the temporal evolution, the temperature dependence of the birefringence and how the birefringence is affected by the sample thermal history, as the sample free volume of the polymer depends on such history.

Kyoto University (京都大学) / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第14942号 / 工博第3169号 / 新制||工||1475(附属図書館) / 27380 / UT51-2009-M856 / 京都大学大学院工学研究科物質エネルギー化学専攻 / (主査)教授 小澤 文幸, 教授 大江 浩一, 教授 中村 正治 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当

Optimized methods for the regioselective and stereospecific synthesis of both trisubstituted and tetrasubstituted olefins as single isomers from E-β-chloro-α-iodo-α,β-unsaturated esters have been developed from previous work done in the Ogilvie lab. These optimized methods have led to the synthesis of trans isomeric enediynes that can be photoisomerized to their respective cis isomers and subsequently undergo microwave-assisted Bergman cycloaromatizations. Furthermore, both cis and trans isomeric enediynes that have propargyl ether substituents have been found to be able to undergo photoactivated Bergman cyclizations without the need for an intermolecular hydrogen donor. A mechanism study has confirmed that the Bergman cyclization products that form without the presence of an intermolecular hydrogen donor undergo a series of 1,5-hydrogen shifts as intermediates. A series of optimizations to these reactions were carried out, in part by utilizing electron-donating or electron-withdrawing functional groups to help stabilize the resulting radicals that form on the intermediates, and thus increase the yield of the associated Bergman cyclization products.

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Nesse trabalho, foram obtidos bis-azofenóis (HO-(Azo-R)2) pela reação de sais de diazônio estáveis e fenol. As condições dessas reações foram analisadas, sendo que, pela primeira vez, a influência da temperatura foi investigada. Temperaturas mais altas aumentam o rendimento dos bis-azofenóis, o que reforça o modelo Droplet, e indicam um aumento na velocidade de reação da segunda reação de acoplamento. As propriedades espectroscópicas e fotoquímicas de HO-(Azo-Me)2 são essencialmente governadas pelo estabelecimento de uma ligação de hidrogênio intramolecular assistida por ressonância. Os rendimentos quânticos de fotoisomerização E-Z são baixos em decorrência, provavelmente, da formação de tautômeros no estado excitado, que desativam a isomerização. Foi obtida uma díade (Azo1-X-Azo2) contendo um azobenzeno da classe espectroscópica \"azobenzeno\" (Azo 1) e outro da classe \"aminoazobenzeno\'\' (Azo 2) conectados através de um espaçador (X). Não existe interação apreciável entre Azo 1 e Azo 2, sendo a separação entre os máximos de absorção dessas subunidades de mais de 60 nm. Observou-se que não foi possível fotoisomerizar (E-Z) seletivamente Azo 1, seja na região de seu isosbéstico, seja na região de seu máximo de absorção, sendo sempre observada a isomerização concomitante de Azo 2. O rendimento quântico de Azo 1 (0,22) é idêntico ao obtido para o modelo M-Azo 1, indicando que sua incorporação na díade não altera essa propriedade fotoquímica. A unidade Azo 2 pode ser fotoisomerizada (E-Z) seletivamente na região de seu máximo de absorção, não sendo observada isomerização significativa de Azo 1. É obtido um rendimento quântico (0,34) também idêntico ao do modelo M-Azo 2. Entretanto, na díade existe uma dependência do rendimento quântico de Azo 2 em função da região de excitação, sendo observado um rendimento quântico (0,54) quando excitado na região de 370 nm, que difere consideravelmente do rendimento quântico de M-Azo 2, que é independente do comprimento de onda (0,33). Um comportamento interessante foi observado ao se irradiar a díade na região de 370 nm, que corresponde ao ponto isosbéstico de Azo 2 e uma região de alta absorção da banda pi-pi* de Azo 1. Apesar da menor fração de luz absorvida por Azo 2 (44%), não se observa isomerização de Azo 1 até ser obtido o estado fotoestacionário (PSS) de Azo 2, indicando que existe um período de indução para que seja obtida a isomerização de Azo 1. Esse comportamento corresponde a um sistema do tipo neural, em que existe um estímulo durante um período de indução até que seja atingido um limiar para que ocorra uma determinada função. Considerando também os processos de isomerização Z-E, é possível realizar várias combinações a partir de estímulos luminosos diferentes e estados iniciais diferentes, que podem ser correlacionados com a lógica binária (byte [x,y]; x e y = 0 ou 1). Devido à combinação conveniente de grupos azo, essa díade é a primeira em que é possível uma caracterização fotoquímica dos processos fotoquímicos E-Z e Z-E e que se obtém uma seletividade, ao menos parcial, no controle desses processos. / In the studies herein proposed, bis-azophenols (HO-(Azo-R)2) were synthesized by the coupling reaction of stable diazonium salts and phenol. The reaction conditions were assessed and, for the first time, the influence of temperature was investigated in this type of reaction. Higher temperatures lead to increased yields of bis-azophenol, reinforcing the Droplet Model, and indicate an increase in the reaction rate for the second coupling step. Spectroscopic and photochemical properties of HO-(Azo-Me)2 are essentially directed by the establishment of a Resonance-Assisted Hydrogen Bond. The E-Z photoisomerization quantum yield is low, probably due to the formation of tautomers in the excited state that deactivate the isomerization process. A dyad (Azo1-X-Azo2) containing an azobenzene of the \"azobenzene\" spectroscopic group (Azo 1) and another azobenzene of the \"aminoazobenzene\" spectroscopic group (Azo 2), connected through a spacer (X), has been obtained. There is no appreciable interaction between Azo 1 and Azo 2 and the separation of the corresponding absorption maxima of these subunits is 60 nm. It was observed that selectively photoisomerization (E-Z) of Azo 1, either in the region of its isosbestic or in the region of its absorption maximum, was not feasible, being always observed the concomitant isomerization of Azo 2. The quantum yield of Azo 1 (0.22) is identical to that obtained for M-Azo 2, indicating that its incorporation into the dyad does not modify this photochemical property. The Azo 2 unit can be selectively photoisomerized (E-Z) in the region of its absorption maximum, without Azo 1 isomerization. A quantum yield of 0.34 was obtained, also the same to M-Azo 2 model. However, the dyad presents a dependence on the quantum yield of Azo 2 as a function of the excitation region , and a quantum yield of (0.54) was observed when excited in the region of 370 nm, which differs considerably from the quantum yield of M-Azo 2 since it is independent of the wavelength of excitation. An interesting behavior was observed by irradiating the dyad in the region of 370 nm, which corresponds to the isosbestic point of Azo 2 and a region of high absorption of the pi-pi* band of Azo 1. Despite the smaller fraction of light absorbed by Azo 2 (44%), isomerization of Azo 1 isn\'t observed until the photostationary state of Azo 2 is achieved, indicating that there is an induction period to obtain Azo 1 isomerization. This behavior corresponds to a neural type system, in which there is a stimulus during an induction period until a threshold is reached for a given function to occur. Considering also the Z-E isomerization processes, it is possible to perform several combinations from different light stimuli and different initial states that can be correlated with binary logic (byte [x, y] x and y = 0 or 1). Due to the convenient combination of azo groups, this dyad is the first in which a photochemical characterization of the photochemical processes E-Z and Z-E is obtained, and a partial selectivity is achieved in the control of these processes.

Die vorliegende Arbeit präsentiert eine umfassende Untersuchung zu einem speziellen lichtempfindlichen Makromolekül: ein Azobenzol Photoschalter, eingebettet in den Hauptstrang eines synthetischen stäbchenförmigen Polymers. Dazu wurden die Polymere zunächst aus Lösung auf eine Einfachlage Octadecylamin (ODA) aufgebracht, welche auf einer Oberfläche von hochgeordnetem pyrolytischem Graphit (HOPG) lag. Die besondere Eigenschaft der amphiphilen ODAs, sich in Nanolamellen anzuordnen, diente nicht nur der Immobilisierung und Isolierung der stabförmigen Polymere, sondern auch deren Orientierung auf der Oberfläche. Diese Orientierung, insbesondere die Ausrichtung relativ zu den Lamellen, wurde mit einem Modell, basierend auf den hydrophoben W echselwirkungen zwischen den Seitenketten der Polymere und der amphiphilen Unterlage aus ODA, untersucht. Mittels SFM konnte die Kontraktion beziehungsweise Expansion bei Belichtung mit UV- oder sichtbarem Licht untersucht werden. In zeitaufgelösten Messungen wurden lichtinduzierte morphologische Änderungen in Abhängigkeit von der Belichtungszeit der Polymere gemessen. Dies verdeutlichte die lichtinduzierte Bewegung dieser Strukturen innerhalb der Makromoleküle und offenbarte eine kriechende Fortbewegung der Polymere über die Oberfläche. Polymere, die auf Oberflächendefekten nur schwach gebunden waren, änderten ihre Orientierung bei Belichtung zufällig. Daraus schlussfolgere ich, dass die wohldefinierte lokale Umgebung mit Korngrenzen oder Lamellen eine wichtige Rolle als Templat spielt und die Bewegungsrichtung maßgeblich bestimmt. Die entwickelte experimentelle Methode kann verwendet werden, um die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Oberfläche und Polymer zu optimieren, und die anschließende Untersuchung von lichtinduzierten Bewegung der Makromoleküle kann die Entwicklung neuartiger optomechanischer Nanosysteme ermöglichen. / This work presents a comprehensive investigation of one particular photoresponsive macromolecule: Azobenzene photoswitches incorporated into the backbone of synthetic rigid-rod polymers. Firstly, the polymers were deposited from solution onto a monolayer of octadecylamine (ODA) covering the basal plane of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG). The unique ODA amphiphilic nanorails, self- assembled on HOPG, served not only to immobilize and isolate the polymers, but also to orient them on the surface. The orientations of rod- like polymers on an ODA surface, i.e., predominally perpendicular or parallel with respect to the underlying lamellar surface, were analyzed with a model based on the hydrophobic interaction of the side chains of the polymers with the amphiphilic nanorails of the ODA molecules. Upon the irradiations with UV and visible light, respectively, large light- induced contractions and extensions of the single macromolecules have been visualized by SFM. An SFM’s time-laps study of morphological changes of polymers at different irradiating times also detailed the light-induced movements within the macromolecules and a crawling movement across the surface. For weakly adsorbed polymers on surface defects, those surface-directed folding/unfolding (or contracting/extending) movements exhibited a random change in orientation. Thus, I conclude, that well-defined local environments, such as domain boundaries or lamellae within the ODA monolayer, play important roles in the template that directs the folding and unfolding movements of polymers during irradiation. The developed setup allows to promote the development of optomechanical nanosystems by optimizing the interaction between single macromolecules and ODA surfaces, followed by visualization of light- induced, on-surface motions of single macromolecules.

Les azobenzènes sont des molécules photochromes très étudiées, leurs propriétés de photoisomérisation donnent notamment lieu à d’importants phénomènes de transport de matière photoinduit en milieu polymère. L’objectif de cette thèse est de mieux comprendre les différents paramètres régissant de tels effets photomécaniques. Pour ce faire, nous avons entrepris des études sur des monocouches de dérivés azobenzenes auto-assemblés ou SAMs (Self-Assembled Monolayers) sur substrats d’or atomiquement plans, de façon à pouvoir réaliser à la fois des caractérisations d’ensemble (propriétés de mouillage : mesures d’angles de contact) ou des caractérisations à l’échelle de la molécule individuelle (par microscopie à effet tunnel, STM). Nous avons choisi le système d'un alcane thiol fonctionnalisé par un azobenzène pour bénéficier de la facilité que possèdent les alcanes thiols à former des SAMs hautement organisées. L'autre avantage que propose ce système est de pouvoir jouer avec la longueur de la chaîne carbonée, ce qui permet d'espacer plus ou moins le groupe photo-actif de la surface métallique du substrat d'or. Ainsi ces systèmes paraissent bien adaptés pour identifier l’influence de paramètres tels que (1) les phénomènes de transferts d’énergie ou de charges pouvant exister entre molécules ou entre molécules et substrat et (2) les problèmes éventuels de gêne stérique.Nous avons étudié des azobenzenes greffés (1) sur une courte chaîne alcanethiol (3 atomes de C - "azoc3"), et (2), sur une chaîne plus longue (12 C - "azoc12"). Les caractérisations STM ont mis en évidence un réseau dense similaire aux alcanes thiols non substitués dans le cas des "azosc3" mais aucune modification sous éclairement n’a été observée. Des mesures d’angle de contact, utilisant le changement de polarité entre les photoisomères Trans et Cis, confirment cette absence de réaction pour ces SAMs. Une photo-réactivité a par contre été mise en évidence par des mesures d'angle de contact pour l’espaceur long ("azoc12") sur des substrats d’or polycristallins. Les raisons d'un tel comportement proviennent des propriétés intrinsèques d'une SAM d'alcanethiol : un réseau très dense implique un volume libre restreint et d'importantes interactions intermoléculaires qui ajoutent des voies supplémentaires de désexcitation et donc inhibent les changements de conformation photo-induits, à l’exception des zones de défauts. Ces conclusions ont pu être étayées par des caractérisations complémentaires de fluorescence de SAMs similaires. Nous avons pu démontrer qu’un espaceur alcane correspondant à 11 C permettait un découplage électronique suffisant pour observer de la fluorescence sur des SAMs non denses de dérivés thiolés de fluorescéine. Ces études ont cependant confirmé la difficulté de contrôler la densité surfacique de molécules photosensibles (photochromisme ou fluorescence) insérées au sein de SAMs de thiols. A ce titre, nous avons pu démontrer l’intérêt d’un système moléculaire original possédant une accroche en surface d’encombrement supérieur à celui de la base soufrée des alcanes thiols. Ces systèmes se physisorbent sur des surfaces de graphite, leurs propriétés d’auto-assemblage étant également conservées dans le cas de substrat de graphène sur Cuivre. Ces feuillets possèdent l’avantage d’être facilement transférables sur des substrats transparents. Ces travaux offrent ainsi de nouvelles perspectives pour la réalisation d'expériences in situ simultanées couplant des analyses topographiques à l'échelle moléculaire via l’utilisation de sondes locales (STM ou AFM) et mesures optiques à plus grande échelle (microscopie optique inversée), ouvrant la voie à des caractérisations plus approfondies. / One of the most widely studied type of photochromic molecules are azo-dye molecules whose photo-isomerization reaction entails important mass transport processes in polymer matrices.The aim of this PhD Thesis was to get a better understanding of the key parameters controling such photomechanical properties. For this purpose, we have driven some studies on Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) formed by azobenzene derivatives grafted to alkanethiol linkers on atomically flat gold surfaces. Self-assembling offers the possibility to perform both scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) experiments at the molecular scale and contact angle measurement at the macroscopic scale.A derivative alkanethiol system has been chosen to take benefit from the alkanethiol ability to form dense and regular self-assembled monolayers. Another interest of the alkanethiol linker is to easily adjust distance between the azo moiety and the gold surface through the length of the alkane chain. Then, this type of SAMs seems to be the good candidate to study the influence of (1) charges coupling effects between the neighbouring azo moieties and between the molecules and the metallic surface and (2) steric hindrance problems. Both a short (3 carbon atoms – “azoC3”) and a long (12 carbon atoms – “azo-C12”) alkane linker have more specifically been investigated. Although STM characterization have shown that azoC3 was organizing into a dense and regular packing showing a network quite similar to the one observed in the case of alkanethiols self-assembly, no modification could be evidenced upon illumination. Polarity modification between the trans and cis photoisomers, probed by wetting measurements, confirm the lack of photo-reactivity of these molecules grafted through a short linker to the metallic substrate. However, photo-isomerization effects have been observed at the macroscopic scale on polycristallines substrates for the long linker (“azo-C12”). The reasons for such behavior come from the intrinsic properties of alkanethiol SAMs: a dense network involves a restricted free volume and significant intermolecular interactions that add additional de-excitation channels thus leading to a quenching of the photoinduced conformational changes, except at surface defects areas. These findings have been supported by complementary characterizations of fluorescence of similar thiolates SAMs. We have demonstrated that an alkane spacer corresponding to 11 C was allowing electronic decoupling thus leading to fluorescent emission in the case of non-dense thiolated SAMs of fluorescein derivatives. However, these studies have also confirmed the difficulty to control the dilution of photosensitive molecules (photochromic or fluorescent) inserted within thiolated SAMs. In order to overcome this problem, we have demonstrated the interest of another original molecular system whose extended head group permits the formation of a network less densely-packed than those formed by alkanethiol derivatives. These molecular systems self-assemble by physisorption onto graphite (HOPG) substrates, their organization properties being also maintained for graphene sheets deposited onto copper substrates. Advantageously, these sheets can easily be transferred to transparent substrates. These studies open thus new perspectives for the realization of simultaneous in-situ experiments coupling molecular scale topography informations using local probe microscopy (AFM or STM) and larger scale optical measurents (inverted optical microscopy) towards more accurate characterizations.