Orientador: Sirio Possenti / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T06:29:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ferreira_NilsonCandido_D.pdf: 1692823 bytes, checksum: f956b38952e8365eac2b442e5a8589f9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Esta tese analisa a relação existente entre o discurso de divulgação científica neodarwinista e o discurso criacionista conservador. O neodarwinismo, neste estudo, representa o pensamento atual das diversas correntes da Biologia que seguem o modelo estruturado por Charles Darwin, a partir de sua obra A Origem das Espécies. O criacionismo conservador, também conhecido por fundamentalista, interpreta o texto do Gênesis sobre a criação do mundo de forma literal. Este trabalho, que analisa, principalmente, matérias da revista "Veja" que circularam no período de 1993 a 2002, tem como discurso de referência o neodarwinismo e é fundamentado na teoria da Análise do Discurso francesa, especialmente nos conceitos de interdiscurso, semântica de base, interincompreensão, polêmica e simulacros discursivos propostos por Maingueneau. Verifica-se que a base semântica do discurso neodarwinista é fundamentada nas seguintes unidades lexicais: acaso, natureza, acidente, primata, evolução e milhões-de-anos/eras. A semântica de base do criacionismo conservador é construída a partir das seguintes unidades lexicais: projeto, Criador/Deus, propósito, Adão, criação e dias-da-criação. O foco da polêmica entre esses discursos está centralizado no item lexical "acaso" e seu oposto "projeto". Isso porque admitir que há "projeto" acarreta em admitir-se que há projetista e, se há projetista e projeto, há também propósito, pois uma coisa pressupõe a outra. Assim, ancorado no papel atribuído ao "acaso", o evolucionismo constrói o seu discurso e, simultaneamente, nega a legitimidade do discurso antagonista, que é retratado sempre através do simulacro discursivo construído pelo processo da interincompreensão. O discurso neodarwinista procura construir para si um ethos científico e para isso reivindica os sentidos construídos pelos semas: fato, prova, verdade, certeza, racional. Os cientistas de sua formação discursiva são descritos como renomados, conceituados, sérios, sinceros, defensores da ciência e da verdade, etc. Em contrapartida, o discurso de referência constrói o simulacro discursivo do seu Outro através de itens lexicais como: mito, lenda, superstição, palpite, explicação sem sentido, histórias apócrifas, religião ruim, ciência ruim. Quanto aos que pertencem ao posicionamento discursivo antagônico, são: religiosos apaixonados, insinceros, supersticiosos, perseguidores da ciência, promotores de "guerras acirradas" em cujo meio encontram-se cientistas que na verdade são teístas inconfessos. Constata-se que, além do ethos científico, valorizado e assimilado pelos co-enunciadores aliados, o neodarwinismo constrói para si também, mesmo sem intenção, um ethos polêmico, que é o assimilado pelos antagonistas como um ethos arrogante. Assim, constata-se uma instabilidade na construção do ethos neodarwinista, que ora é mais sereno, mais científico, e ora mais combativo, mais polêmico. Esta tese incorpora o conceito de pathos à perspectiva discursiva e analisa os páthe que o discurso neodarwinista suscita nos co-enunciadores aliados e nos antagonistas. Faz-se, também, uma consideração das possíveis conseqüências dos páthe suscitados. Conclui-se que a relação de interincompreensão e polêmica entre os discursos protagonistas, fortemente marcada pela ideologia, faz com que cada um desses discursos veja o seu Outro somente através do simulacro que dele constrói. / Abstract: This thesis analyzes the relation between the Neodarwinist scientific disclosure discourse and the conservative creationist discourse. The Neodarwinism, in this study, shows the contemporary thought of the several Biology tendencies that follow the model structured by Charles Darwin, in his work On the Origin of Species. The conservative creationism, also known as fundamentalist, has a literal interpretation of the Genesis text about the creation of the world. This work, which mainly analyzes publications from ?Veja? magazine that were published in the period from 1993 to 2002, has the neodarwinism as the reference discourse and is based on the French discourse analysis theory, specially on the concepts of inter-discourse, base semantics, inter-uncomprehension, controversy and discourse simulacrum proposed by Maingueneau. It is verified that the semantic foundations of the neodarwinist discourse are based on the following lexical unities: chance, nature, accident, primate, evolution and millions/billions of years/ages. The semantic foundations of the conservative creationism are built on the following lexical unities: project, God/Creator, purpose, Adam, creation and creation-days. The focus of the polemic among those discourses is centralized on the lexical item "chance" and its opposite "project". That is this way because if we admit that there is a "project", we have to admit there is a planner, and, if there is a planner and a project, there should be a purpose, once one thing presupposes the other. Thus, anchored on the role attributed to "chance", the evolutionism builds up its discourse and, simultaneously, denies the legitimacy of the antagonistic discourse, which is always evidenced through the discoursive simulacrum built by the inter-uncomprehension process. The neodarwinist discourse tries to build on itself a scientific ethos and, for that purpose, uses the concepts built by the semantic meanings: fact, proof, truth, certainty, rational. The scientists of this discoursive formation are highly regarded and described as renowned, dignified, serious, honest, science and truth defenders, etc. On the other hand, the reference discourse builds the discoursive simulacrum of its "Other" through lexical items such as: myth, legend, superstition, suggestion, meaningless explanation, apocryphal histories, bad religion and bad science. Those who belong to the antagonistic discourse formation are considered: insincere, superstitious, passionate religious men, science persecutors and promoters of "exasperated wars" where there are scientists who are in fact non-confessed theists. It is verified that, besides the scientific ethos, valued and assimilated by the co-enunciator allies, neodarwinism also builds for itself, even without intention, a polemic ethos, that is the one assimilated by the antagonists as an arrogant ethos. Thus, an instability is verified in the construction of the Neodarwinist ethos, that is either more serene, more scientific, or more combative, more polemical. This thesis incorporates the pathos concept to the discoursive perspective and analyzes the páthe that the neodarwinist speech raises in allied co-enunciators and in the antagonists. It also happens a consideration of the possible consequences of the raised páthe. The relation of inter-incomprehension and controversy among the protagonist discourses, which is highly marked by ideology, causes in each one of these discourses view to face its "Other" through the simulacrum built by itself. / Doutorado / Linguistica / Doutor em Linguística

The thesis focuses on the textual strategies of argument in the confessional polemic Ad libellum Martini Lutheri de instituendis ministris ecclesiae accepti relatio (1525) by Czech jurist and humanist Rodericus Dubravius of Dubrava. Chapters 1-4 provide a cultural and historical context of the early stage of Lutheran reformation, define main features of the polemic genre, and sketch the process of constituting of the anti-Lutheran discourse from 1510s to 1520s both in Europe and Bohemia by introducing some of its representative examples. The core of this thesis consists in Chapter 5, introducing selected examples of particular strategies of argument, such as personal invective, use of doctrinal arguments, etc. The analysis of selected textual samples is based on a particular set of methodological tools, most importantly a taxonomy of humanistic polemics by Marc Laureys, Roswitha Simons, and Arnold Becker which is presented in detail in Chapter 2.

O presente trabalho procura analisar a polêmica judaico-cristã em relatos de martírio durante a perseguição romana aos cristãos até o século IV. Abordaremos as principais temáticas que compunham essa polêmica em outras fontes cristãs e judaicas para indicar um cenário possível que pudesse alimentar conflitos entres os dois grupos religiosos. Defenderemos que essa rivalidade presente no discurso dos líderes servia para demarcar a alteridade religiosa e que não necessariamente era vivenciada pelo conjunto dos fiéis em conformidade com os textos, sobretudo, quando a identidade judaica e a identidade cristã estavam em construção. Mesmo em um momento crítico de perseguição religiosa, a multiplicidade de manifestações religiosas tanto no judaísmo quanto no cristianismo, contribuiu para a circulação de práticas, de crenças e para um contato mais estreito entre judeus e cristãos nesses primeiros séculos. Defenderemos que apesar da concepção de martírio judaico ser diferente da concepção cristã é possível estabelecer relações entre os dois martirológios. As Atas dos Mártires dão alguns indícios de que o conceito de martírio cristão desenvolvido pelo cristianismo gentio estabeleceu essa afirmação de alteridade diante de sua matriz judaica. / The aim of this work is to analyze the Judeo-Christian polemics in martyrdom reports produced during the Roman persecution of Christians until the fourth century. We will cover the main themes that made up this controversy in other Christian and Jewish sources to indicate a possible scenario that could fuel conflicts between both religious groups. We will defend that this rivalry in the discourse of leaders served to demarcate the religious otherness and that it was not necessarily experienced by all the faithful according to the texts, especially when Jewish identity and Christian identity were under construction. Even at a critical time of religious persecution, the multiplicity of religious manifestations in both Judaism and Christianity contributed to the circulation of practices, beliefs and to a closer contact between Jews and Christians in those early centuries. We will argue that despite the difference between the Jewish and the Christian conception of martyrdom, it is possible to establish relations between the two martyrologies. The Acts of the Martyrs give some evidence that the concept of Christian martyrdom developed by Gentile Christianity stated the otherness from its Jewish mother.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-05T18:23:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 5 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Esta pesquisa busca compreender de que modo as disputas sociais se manifestam na crítica musical jornalística. Através de investigação das aproximações constituídas entre os campos musical e mediático, bem como de análise das estratégias editoriais da crítica musical do jornal Folha de S. Paulo, nos meses de maio e junho de 2003, discute-se em que medida se proporciona uma conversação polêmica sobre a música contemporânea. / This research tries to understand in which way the social disputes are manifestated in the journalistic musical review. Through the investigation of the constituted approach between the musical and the mediatic areas, as well the analyse of the editorial startegies of the Folha de S. Paulo newspaper, in the months from may to june of 2003, it is dicussed in which level a polemic conversation is provided about the contemporary music

Controverse qui traverse les années, l’expérimentation animale, en dépit de fortes remises en question par des opposants de plus en plus véhéments, s’inscrit dans un certain immobilisme. A quoi tient cette « stagnation » ? Le substantif est-il d’ailleurs à propos ? La controverse en question ne s’inscrit-elle pas plutôt dans une « dynamique immobile » ? Afin d’étudier cette problématique, la thèse favorise une approche communicationnelle. L’étude se fait en trois temps, tout d’abord par l’analyse du dilemme moral sur lequel repose l’expérimentation animale, ce qui suppose un retour vers un certain nombre de textes philosophiques et éthiques fondamentaux. Puis, l’étude analyse les discours des opposants et des partisans et les raisons d’un difficile, voire impossible dialogue entre les deux camps. Dans cette situation de non-communication, le législateur devient, comme nous le voyons en dernier lieu, un recours dont chaque camp attend une solution… Une solution permettant de sortir de l’immobilisme ? / Throughout the years, despite strong questioning from more and more vehement opponents, the animal testing controversy has come to a standstill. What can explain this « immobility » ? Besides, is the noun accurate ? Is this controversy rather not in line with a « dynamic inertia » ? So as to investigate this issue, communicational approach is put forward.The study is divided into three parts. A first one analyzes the underlying moral dilemma of animal testing, which involves going back to some philosophical sources and ethical principles. Then, the study examines the opponents and supporters speeches as well as the reasons for a difficult and even an impossible dialogue between the two sides. In this situation of non-communication, the legislature is, as we see in the third part, a resort from which each side is expecting a solution... A solution to overcome the inertia ?

No início da década de 1960, o Congresso Nacional testemunhou um dos debates mais acirrados de sua história política: em pauta, as reformas de base propostas pelo governo João Goulart, dentre as quais se destacava a reforma agrária. Ao colocar em risco interesses há muito instituídos, esta proposta havia sido recebida com extrema hostilidade por grande parte dos deputados de oposição ao governo, em sua maioria membros da União Democrática Nacional (UDN): representando os interesses dos setores conservadores da sociedade brasileira, foi o partido que mais ativamente participou do movimento conspiracionista que resultaria na deposição de João Goulart em 31 de março de 1964. Considerando-se o caráter polêmico do projeto de reforma agrária apresentado pelo governo Goulart, delimitou-se, como objetivo desta pesquisa, analisar a representação negativa (o simulacro) que o discurso da UDN constrói do discurso do governo Goulart sobre a reforma agrária, tendo em vista \"reduzir\" o discurso governamental à perspectiva em que fundamenta o seu próprio discurso, a saber, a defesa da propriedade privada da terra e da economia de mercado. Para tanto, selecionou-se como corpus de pesquisa uma declaração de voto de autoria dos deputados Aliomar Baleeiro, Pedro Aleixo e Ernani Satyro, membros da ala conservadora da UDN. Eles a redigiram em maio de 1963 para justificar o voto contrário à Emenda Constitucional no 1, proposta pelo governo Goulart, que tinha por objetivo viabilizar a reforma agrária através de mudanças na Constituição. Representando a posição dos setores conservadores da UDN, esse documento destinava-se sobretudo a refutar a posição do governo e dos deputados petebistas a favor da reforma agrária e, mais que isso, a própria reforma agrária enquanto princípio de organização social. A análise do corpus foi fundamentada nos pressupostos teóricos da Análise do Discurso de linha francesa (AD), sobretudo nas noções de formação discursiva, interdiscurso, interincompreensão, polifonia, polêmica e simulacro. Além disso, a Semântica Argumentativa forneceu as duas principais categorias utilizadas para a análise do corpus, a saber, a negação e o mas. A análise do corpus permitiu evidenciar as estratégias argumentativas de que se vale o locutor do discurso udenista para refutar a posição do governo a favor da reforma agrária e, desse modo, impor a perspectiva em que apóia o seu próprio discurso, a saber, a perspectiva do liberalismo econômico. Em outros termos, o locutor evoca, no interior de sua enunciação, as vozes favoráveis à reforma agrária para, através de manobras de monofonização, reduzi-las a uma perspectiva única e hegemônica: a perspectiva da UDN. / In the early 60s, the National Congress witnessed one of the most instigated debates of its political history: on the agenda, the reforms proposed by the Government of João Goulart, especially the agrarian reform. As this reform put some interests in risk, it was seen with extreme hostility by the majority of the Representatives of the opposition parties - most of them were members of the National Democratic Party (União Democrática Nacional - UDN): representing the interests of the conservative sector of Brazilian society, the National Democratic Party was the main party involved in the conspiracy against João Goulart, who would fall on March 31st 1964. Considering the polemical issue of the agrarian reform, the aim of this research is to analyse the simulacrum built by the discourse of the National Democratic Party against the discourse of the Government of Goulart about the agrarian reform. This simulacrum was based on the defence of the private land property and the market economy. Focusing on this, we selected, as a corpus, a declaration written by Aliomar Baleeiro, Pedro Aleixo, and Ernani Satyro, conservative members of the National Democratic Party. These Representatives made this declaration in May 1963 to justify their vote against the Constitutional Amendment I (Emenda Constitucional no 1) proposed by the Government of Goulart, whose objective was to set the agrarian reform through constitutional changes. Representing the conservative position, this document refuted the government position for the agrarian reform project. Our investigation was structured under the rubric of French Discourse Analysis, mobilizing the concepts of discursive formation, interdiscourse, \"intercomprehension\", polyphony, polemic, and simulacrum. Beyond this, the Argumentative Semantics mobilized two linguistic indices - negation and but - used to analyse the corpus. This analysing process leaded us to the argumentative strategies used by the discourse of UDN, under the rubric of the economic liberalism, to deny the government position for the agrarian reform. In other words, the discourse of UDN evokes the voices for the agrarian reform to refute and to reduce them to its own perspective.

No início da década de 1960, o Congresso Nacional testemunhou um dos debates mais acirrados de sua história política: em pauta, as reformas de base propostas pelo governo João Goulart, dentre as quais se destacava a reforma agrária. Ao colocar em risco interesses há muito instituídos, esta proposta havia sido recebida com extrema hostilidade por grande parte dos deputados de oposição ao governo, em sua maioria membros da União Democrática Nacional (UDN): representando os interesses dos setores conservadores da sociedade brasileira, foi o partido que mais ativamente participou do movimento conspiracionista que resultaria na deposição de João Goulart em 31 de março de 1964. Considerando-se o caráter polêmico do projeto de reforma agrária apresentado pelo governo Goulart, delimitou-se, como objetivo desta pesquisa, analisar a representação negativa (o simulacro) que o discurso da UDN constrói do discurso do governo Goulart sobre a reforma agrária, tendo em vista \"reduzir\" o discurso governamental à perspectiva em que fundamenta o seu próprio discurso, a saber, a defesa da propriedade privada da terra e da economia de mercado. Para tanto, selecionou-se como corpus de pesquisa uma declaração de voto de autoria dos deputados Aliomar Baleeiro, Pedro Aleixo e Ernani Satyro, membros da ala conservadora da UDN. Eles a redigiram em maio de 1963 para justificar o voto contrário à Emenda Constitucional no 1, proposta pelo governo Goulart, que tinha por objetivo viabilizar a reforma agrária através de mudanças na Constituição. Representando a posição dos setores conservadores da UDN, esse documento destinava-se sobretudo a refutar a posição do governo e dos deputados petebistas a favor da reforma agrária e, mais que isso, a própria reforma agrária enquanto princípio de organização social. A análise do corpus foi fundamentada nos pressupostos teóricos da Análise do Discurso de linha francesa (AD), sobretudo nas noções de formação discursiva, interdiscurso, interincompreensão, polifonia, polêmica e simulacro. Além disso, a Semântica Argumentativa forneceu as duas principais categorias utilizadas para a análise do corpus, a saber, a negação e o mas. A análise do corpus permitiu evidenciar as estratégias argumentativas de que se vale o locutor do discurso udenista para refutar a posição do governo a favor da reforma agrária e, desse modo, impor a perspectiva em que apóia o seu próprio discurso, a saber, a perspectiva do liberalismo econômico. Em outros termos, o locutor evoca, no interior de sua enunciação, as vozes favoráveis à reforma agrária para, através de manobras de monofonização, reduzi-las a uma perspectiva única e hegemônica: a perspectiva da UDN. / In the early 60s, the National Congress witnessed one of the most instigated debates of its political history: on the agenda, the reforms proposed by the Government of João Goulart, especially the agrarian reform. As this reform put some interests in risk, it was seen with extreme hostility by the majority of the Representatives of the opposition parties - most of them were members of the National Democratic Party (União Democrática Nacional - UDN): representing the interests of the conservative sector of Brazilian society, the National Democratic Party was the main party involved in the conspiracy against João Goulart, who would fall on March 31st 1964. Considering the polemical issue of the agrarian reform, the aim of this research is to analyse the simulacrum built by the discourse of the National Democratic Party against the discourse of the Government of Goulart about the agrarian reform. This simulacrum was based on the defence of the private land property and the market economy. Focusing on this, we selected, as a corpus, a declaration written by Aliomar Baleeiro, Pedro Aleixo, and Ernani Satyro, conservative members of the National Democratic Party. These Representatives made this declaration in May 1963 to justify their vote against the Constitutional Amendment I (Emenda Constitucional no 1) proposed by the Government of Goulart, whose objective was to set the agrarian reform through constitutional changes. Representing the conservative position, this document refuted the government position for the agrarian reform project. Our investigation was structured under the rubric of French Discourse Analysis, mobilizing the concepts of discursive formation, interdiscourse, \"intercomprehension\", polyphony, polemic, and simulacrum. Beyond this, the Argumentative Semantics mobilized two linguistic indices - negation and but - used to analyse the corpus. This analysing process leaded us to the argumentative strategies used by the discourse of UDN, under the rubric of the economic liberalism, to deny the government position for the agrarian reform. In other words, the discourse of UDN evokes the voices for the agrarian reform to refute and to reduce them to its own perspective.

Nous avons entrepris, dans ce travail doctoral, une analyse stylistique du dialogue polémique, appliquée à un corpus littéraire à tendance philosophique : celui de l’œuvre philosophique de Voltaire. Nous avons accordé une attention particulière au style du polémiste aux dépens de ses idées philosophiques, maintes fois étudiées dans d’autres travaux. Le dialogue polémique dans l’œuvre philosophique de Voltaire n’est pas un simple procédé littéraire ; il constitue l’essence même de l’œuvre. La thèse comprend trois parties :L’analyse que nous avons effectuée dans la première partie de notre travail doctoral met avant tout l’accent sur la spécificité formelle du dialogue polémique et surtout sur sa nature conflictuelle, tout en examinant la manière dont il s’articule avec des genres littéraires divers et les différentes formes du discours qu’il revêt. La polémique s’engage quand les interlocuteurs admettent des thèses opposées et que chacun suppose que le discours adverse est mal déduit et fondé sur des faux raisonnements : distanciation et défense sont donc interdépendantes. C’est pour cette raison que nous avons entrepris, dans la deuxième partie de notre travail doctoral, une étude sur le fonctionnement de l’argumentation dans le dialogue polémique voltairien. Le détournement est une spécificité stylistique chez notre polémiste, qui dévoile sa présence constante dans ses écritures philosophiques. Dans ce sens, il nous a paru nécessaire d’étudier, dans la troisième partie de notre travail doctoral, le style détourné dans les œuvres philosophique de Voltaire tout en soulignant l'ambiguïté énonciative qui s’attache à ses différentes figures. / In this doctoral work, we have undertaken a stylistic analysis of polemical dialogue, applied to a literary corpus with a philosophical tendency: that of Voltaire's philosophical work. We have paid particular attention to the style of the polemicist at the expense of his philosophical ideas, often studied in other works. The polemical dialogue in Voltaire's philosophical work is not merely a literary process; It is the very essence of the work. The thesis consists of three parts:The analysis that we carried out in the first part of our doctoral work focuses above all on the formal specificity of polemical dialogue and especially on its conflictual nature, while examining the way it articulates with various literary genres And the different forms of discourse it assumes.Polemicism begins when the interlocutors admit opposing theses and each assumes that the opposing discourse is wrongly deduced and based on false reasoning: distancing and defense are therefore interdependent. For this reason, in the second part of our doctoral work, we undertook a study on the functioning of the argument in the Voltairian polemical dialogue.The diversion is a stylistic specificity in our polemicist, who reveals its constant presence in its philosophical writings. In this sense, it seemed necessary to study in the third part of our doctoral work the diverted style in Voltaire's philosophical works, while underlining the enunciative ambiguity attached to its various figures.

Cette thèse étudie le rôle de la reine Katherine Parr (c. 1512-1548) et de son proche entourage féminin dont l’aristocrate Elizabeth Tyrwhit (c. 1519-1578) dans l’instauration de la Réforme. En effet, la dernière épouse d’Henri VIII, auteur de deux manuels de dévotion et première reine anglaise à voir ses écrits publiés, s’entourait des Protestants de la cour. La situation confessionnelle complexe de la fin du règne d’Henri VIII fut marquée par un retour au catholicisme strict, avec des restrictions concernant les pratiques, notamment la lecture de la Bible. Cependant, un certain nombre de personnalités acquises aux idées de la Réforme parvinrent à rester en place. Alors que les femmes n’avaient qu’un accès très limité à la Bible (The Act for the Advancement of True Religion and for the Abolishment of the contrary de 1543 le leur interdisait, sauf si elles étaient de très haut rang), une jeune femme, Anne Askew (1521-1546), quitta le domicile familial et intégra les réseaux protestants de Londres où elle prêcha ce qui lui valut d’être condamnée pour hérésie. La faction conservatrice, la sachant en contact avec les dames de la cour, la tortura lors de son second interrogatoire dans le but d’obtenir des noms de Protestants mais elle resta silencieuse et fut condamnée à brûler vive en juillet 1546. Le règne d’Édouard VI permit au protestantisme de s’imposer comme religion d’État puis, après l’intermède catholique romain du règne de Marie Ière, Élisabeth Ière rétablit le Protestantisme ce qui permit à Elizabeth Tyrwhit de publier librement son manuel de dévotion en 1574. Ce travail explore les démarches des trois femmes, leurs témoignages de foi et leur influence auprès de leurs contemporains et au-delà. / This thesis examines the role of Queen Katherine Parr (c.1512-1548) and her close female entourage, including the aristocrat Elizabeth Tyrwhit (c.1519-1578) in the establishment of the Reformation. Indeed, Parr, Henry VIII’s last wife, author of two manuals of devotion and the first English queen to see her writings published, surrounded herself with the Protestants of the court. The complex confessional situation at the end of Henry VIII's reign was marked by a return to strict Catholicism, with restrictions on practices, including reading of the Bible. However, a certain number of courtiers already won over to the ideas of the Reformation managed to keep their positions at court. While women had very limited access to the Bible (the 1543 Act for the Advancement of True Religion and for the Abolishment of the contrary forbade them access to the Scriptures, unless they were of very high birth), a young woman, Anne Askew (1521-1546), left the family home and integrated the Protestant networks of London where she preached, which caused her to be condemned for heresy. The conservative faction, knowing she was in contact with the ladies of the court, tortured her during her second interrogation in order to obtain the names of Protestants but she remained silent and was condemned to burn alive in July 1546. The reign of Edward VI allowed Protestantism to establish itself as the official religion, and after the Roman Catholic interlude of Mary I, Elizabeth I re-established Protestantism, which enabled Elizabeth Tyrwhit to freely publish her devotional manual in 1574. This work explores the attitudes of the three women through their testimonies of faith and their influence with their contemporaries and beyond.

This dissertation is a study of the differing explanatory criteria used for the assessment of epistemic medical claims, particularly anatomical claims, in the work of Galen of Pergamum (129-c. 216 CE). It focuses on Galen's use of anatomy and anatomical exegesis to position himself in relation to the various medical sects or haireseis active in the Late Roman Empire. Consequent on the emergence of invasive anatomical investigations in the early Hellenistic period (3rd cent. BCE), the explanatory and therapeutic value of anatomical information came to be a defining characteristic of competing medical sects. The Empiricists, who, we are told, were reacting to what they believed was the theoretical promiscuity of other medical thinkers, took their name from their reliance on experience rather than theory, the latter a methodological commitment they attributed to other medical thinkers whom they grouped under the broad category of Dogmatists. This sensitivity to theoretical claims is apparent from the fact that the Empiricists eschewed anatomical dissections, on the grounds that they required analogical moves from structures in corpses to structures in living creatures. If Galen is to be taken at his word, by the second century CE, sectarian disputes between the medical sects had risen to a fever pitch. Galen, who was at pains to make a place for his own medical beliefs in this debate, stresses the need for explanatory theoretical accounts of the body and things relevant to its biological function but also insists that these theoretical accounts be based in empirical observations. One of the arguments he must overcome is the problem of anatomical analogy, raised by the Empiricists. Galen not only engages with this issue from an abstract point of view but, this dissertation argues, he engages with it through the narrative structure of his anatomical accounts throughout his work and especially in his procedural anatomical handbook, De Anatomicis Administrationibus. Historically, this treatise has either been ignored by scholars or studied as a technical treatise that lacks in artifice. This dissertation questions this approach and considers the argumentative role of Galen's anatomical exegesis in the debate over the explanatory value of anatomy in Greco-Roman medicine. It takes as one of its main focuses, Galen's accounts of elephantine anatomy. It argues that these accounts are governed by different norms of assertion, which do not place the same premium on accurate reporting of anatomical detail, from the surrounding anatomical narrative in De Anatomicis Administrationibus. To that end, it shows the need for a more nuanced reading of fachprosa, such as Galen's anatomical work, than these texts have historically received. / text