published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Linguistics / Master / Master of Arts

This master's thesis deals with biaspectual verbs in Russian and Czech language. The theoretical part is divided into two main chapters. The first one provides short overview of main areas of aspectological research. Individual subchapters explain and describe basic aspectological concepts - aspect, aspectual pair, aktionsart etc, their functional features and mechanisms of creating aspectual pairs. The second theoretical chapter is devoted to the phenomenon of biaspectuality. It presents different approaches to the nature of biaspectuality and issues of classification of biaspectual verbs. It also maps statistical data about biaspectual verbs in Russian and Czech and describes dynamics of their development. The practical part represents a contrastive analysis of 50 Russian and 50 Czech biaspectual verbs. Main goal was to explore functioning of biaspectual verbs in Russian and Czech, find their new potential aspectual partners, examine mechanisms of their creating and determine extent of their semantic overlap with original borrowed biaspectual verbs, using selected electronic corpuses, the internet and own examples. Finally, based on results of the analysis, are formulated main tendencies of the development of biaspectual verbs in Russian and Czech. Key words Aktionsart, aspect, aspectology,...

O objeto empírico desta tese é um subgrupo de verbos complexos do português brasileiro. Os dados estudados são formações sincronicamente transparentes e composicionais com prefixos a-, eN- e eS- e sufixos -ec-, -iz-, -e- e -ej-, incluindo os chamados verbos parassintéticos, e formações originalmente complexas, porém duvidosas quanto à complexidade atualmente. O corpus contém 380 verbos selecionados a partir de dicionário e organizados por critérios de frequência. O objetivo geral descritivo enfoca questões relativas às propriedades e ao comportamento dos afixos, das raízes e das vogais temáticas. A discussão é organizada em torno dos níveis de estrutura morfológica, morfofonológica, argumental e eventual. O objetivo geral teórico do trabalho consiste em discutir as propostas da Semântica Lexical, da Sintaxe Lexical e da Morfologia Distribuída. Como resultados, o estudo oferece uma primeira classificação em verbos parcialmente transparentes e totalmente transparentes. Aqueles são analisados como fruto de um processo de reanálise histórica comparado ao desaparecimento de preverbos. O estudo mostra que existe um continuum entre formações completamente fossilizadas, reanalisadas como simples, em processo de mudança e completamente transparentes e composicionais. Uma segunda classificação se refere a formações com significado composicional e não-composicional. Os dados não-composicionais são estruturalmente analisados através de uma releitura da restrição de localidade na interpretação das raízes e do uso da noção de polissemia das raízes. Os verbos totalmente transparentes e composicionais são descritivamente classificados em verbos de mudança de estado, de lugar (location), de posse concreta (locatum), de posse abstrata, de reconfiguração e verbos de modificação de v. A característica mais robusta dessa subclasse é a obrigatoriedade de um argumento interno interpretado como objeto afetado (tema ou experienciador, em menor escala) da mudança expressa pelo evento. A investigação aponta que esses prefixos podem ser a realização fonológica de um núcleo misto de natureza lexical e funcional que é responsável por introduzir o argumento interno na estrutura e relacioná-lo à semântica da raiz. Tal núcleo possui minimamente o traço [+r] (relacional) e, em poucos casos, apresenta especificação direcional [+dir]. Com isso, a ideia de que esses prefixos são morfemas direcionais é desmistificada, pois essa informação interna ao verbo complexo é residual e decadente. Em geral, os prefixos se comportam como alomorfes e não há fortes evidências de associação exclusiva de um prefixo a uma determinada estrutura argumental ou classe semântica. Os sufixos são analisados como realizações de núcleos funcionais de tipo v[+voice], v[-voice] e v[+voice, -télico] e também se observa que a ocorrência sufixal em tipos de eventos não se dá de modo tão sistemático como afirma a literatura prévia. A teoria de alomorfia prospota em Embick (2010), baseada em localidade e linearidade, se mostra efetiva para analisar a escolha dos alomorfes dos vi núcleos R (relacionador), v e Th (Vogal temática). O tipo semântico da raiz influencia o tipo de verbo formado, mas pode ser manipulado a fim de sofrer coerção por um processo metonímico ou estrutural. A principal conclusão a partir dos resultados obtidos é que a morfologia verbal do português brasileiro pode revelar tendências em relação à estrutura argumental e a estrutura de eventos, mas não reflete correlações suficientemente regulares ou consistentes. / The empirical object of this dissertation is a subgroup of complex verbs of Brazilian Portuguese. The dataset is composed by synchronically and compositional formations containing the prefixes a-, eN- e eS- and the suffixes -ec-, -iz-, -e- e -ej- and originally complex formations which are dubious in relation to its synchronic complexity. The corpus contains 380 verbs selected from a dictionary and organized by frequency criteria. The general descriptive goal encompasses topics on properties and behavior of affixes, roots and theme vowels and the discussion is guided by the levels of morphological, morphophonological, argument and event structure. The general theoretical goal of this dissertation is to discuss Lexical Semantics, Lexical Syntax and Distributed Morphology proposals. As empirical results, the study offers a primary classification in terms of partially and totally transparent verbs. Partially transparent verbs are treated as resulting from a historical reanalysis process compared to the well known process of disappearance of preverbs. It is assumed that there is a continuum from forms which are: 1) completely fossilized; 2) reanalyzed as simple; 3) forms in process of change; 4) completely compositional and transparent. A secondary classification refers to compositional and noncompositional formations. Non-compositional data are structurally analyzed by means of a new reading on the literature on locality restriction on the interpretation of roots and the use of the notion of root polysemy. Completely compositional and transparent verbs are empirically classified into change of state, change of location, change of abstract and concrete possession, reconfiguration and verbs of modification of v. The strongest characteristic of this subclass is the obligatory presence of an internal argument interpreted as an affected object (theme or experiencer, to a less extent) of the change denoted by the event. The investigation points out that the prefix may be considered as the phonological realization of a head with a mixed lexical functional nature, which is responsible for introducing the internal argument in the structure and relating it to the root semantics. This head has at least the feature [+r] and, in a few cases, it may present directional information [+dir]. Considering this, the assumption that these prefixes are directional morphemes is debunked since this kind of information within a complex verb is residual and decayed. In general, prefixes behave as allomorphs and there are not strong evidences of an exclusive association of a prefix and a certain kind of argument structure or semantic class. The suffixes are analyzed as realizations of three functional heads: v[+voice], v[-voice] and v[+voice, -telic] and it is observed that suffix occurrence in event type is not systematic as previous literature claims. The theory of allomorphy proposed in Embick (2010), which is based on locality and linearity, was efficient in accounting for selection of allomorphs of R, v and Th heads. Finally, semantic type shows influence on verb type but this information can be viii manipulated in order to derive structural or metonymical coercion. The main conclusion to be drawn from the results is the fact that Brazilian Portuguese verbal morphology may reveal certain tendencies in argument and event structure, but it does not reflect sufficiently regular or consistent correlations.

O objeto empírico desta tese é um subgrupo de verbos complexos do português brasileiro. Os dados estudados são formações sincronicamente transparentes e composicionais com prefixos a-, eN- e eS- e sufixos -ec-, -iz-, -e- e -ej-, incluindo os chamados verbos parassintéticos, e formações originalmente complexas, porém duvidosas quanto à complexidade atualmente. O corpus contém 380 verbos selecionados a partir de dicionário e organizados por critérios de frequência. O objetivo geral descritivo enfoca questões relativas às propriedades e ao comportamento dos afixos, das raízes e das vogais temáticas. A discussão é organizada em torno dos níveis de estrutura morfológica, morfofonológica, argumental e eventual. O objetivo geral teórico do trabalho consiste em discutir as propostas da Semântica Lexical, da Sintaxe Lexical e da Morfologia Distribuída. Como resultados, o estudo oferece uma primeira classificação em verbos parcialmente transparentes e totalmente transparentes. Aqueles são analisados como fruto de um processo de reanálise histórica comparado ao desaparecimento de preverbos. O estudo mostra que existe um continuum entre formações completamente fossilizadas, reanalisadas como simples, em processo de mudança e completamente transparentes e composicionais. Uma segunda classificação se refere a formações com significado composicional e não-composicional. Os dados não-composicionais são estruturalmente analisados através de uma releitura da restrição de localidade na interpretação das raízes e do uso da noção de polissemia das raízes. Os verbos totalmente transparentes e composicionais são descritivamente classificados em verbos de mudança de estado, de lugar (location), de posse concreta (locatum), de posse abstrata, de reconfiguração e verbos de modificação de v. A característica mais robusta dessa subclasse é a obrigatoriedade de um argumento interno interpretado como objeto afetado (tema ou experienciador, em menor escala) da mudança expressa pelo evento. A investigação aponta que esses prefixos podem ser a realização fonológica de um núcleo misto de natureza lexical e funcional que é responsável por introduzir o argumento interno na estrutura e relacioná-lo à semântica da raiz. Tal núcleo possui minimamente o traço [+r] (relacional) e, em poucos casos, apresenta especificação direcional [+dir]. Com isso, a ideia de que esses prefixos são morfemas direcionais é desmistificada, pois essa informação interna ao verbo complexo é residual e decadente. Em geral, os prefixos se comportam como alomorfes e não há fortes evidências de associação exclusiva de um prefixo a uma determinada estrutura argumental ou classe semântica. Os sufixos são analisados como realizações de núcleos funcionais de tipo v[+voice], v[-voice] e v[+voice, -télico] e também se observa que a ocorrência sufixal em tipos de eventos não se dá de modo tão sistemático como afirma a literatura prévia. A teoria de alomorfia prospota em Embick (2010), baseada em localidade e linearidade, se mostra efetiva para analisar a escolha dos alomorfes dos vi núcleos R (relacionador), v e Th (Vogal temática). O tipo semântico da raiz influencia o tipo de verbo formado, mas pode ser manipulado a fim de sofrer coerção por um processo metonímico ou estrutural. A principal conclusão a partir dos resultados obtidos é que a morfologia verbal do português brasileiro pode revelar tendências em relação à estrutura argumental e a estrutura de eventos, mas não reflete correlações suficientemente regulares ou consistentes. / The empirical object of this dissertation is a subgroup of complex verbs of Brazilian Portuguese. The dataset is composed by synchronically and compositional formations containing the prefixes a-, eN- e eS- and the suffixes -ec-, -iz-, -e- e -ej- and originally complex formations which are dubious in relation to its synchronic complexity. The corpus contains 380 verbs selected from a dictionary and organized by frequency criteria. The general descriptive goal encompasses topics on properties and behavior of affixes, roots and theme vowels and the discussion is guided by the levels of morphological, morphophonological, argument and event structure. The general theoretical goal of this dissertation is to discuss Lexical Semantics, Lexical Syntax and Distributed Morphology proposals. As empirical results, the study offers a primary classification in terms of partially and totally transparent verbs. Partially transparent verbs are treated as resulting from a historical reanalysis process compared to the well known process of disappearance of preverbs. It is assumed that there is a continuum from forms which are: 1) completely fossilized; 2) reanalyzed as simple; 3) forms in process of change; 4) completely compositional and transparent. A secondary classification refers to compositional and noncompositional formations. Non-compositional data are structurally analyzed by means of a new reading on the literature on locality restriction on the interpretation of roots and the use of the notion of root polysemy. Completely compositional and transparent verbs are empirically classified into change of state, change of location, change of abstract and concrete possession, reconfiguration and verbs of modification of v. The strongest characteristic of this subclass is the obligatory presence of an internal argument interpreted as an affected object (theme or experiencer, to a less extent) of the change denoted by the event. The investigation points out that the prefix may be considered as the phonological realization of a head with a mixed lexical functional nature, which is responsible for introducing the internal argument in the structure and relating it to the root semantics. This head has at least the feature [+r] and, in a few cases, it may present directional information [+dir]. Considering this, the assumption that these prefixes are directional morphemes is debunked since this kind of information within a complex verb is residual and decayed. In general, prefixes behave as allomorphs and there are not strong evidences of an exclusive association of a prefix and a certain kind of argument structure or semantic class. The suffixes are analyzed as realizations of three functional heads: v[+voice], v[-voice] and v[+voice, -telic] and it is observed that suffix occurrence in event type is not systematic as previous literature claims. The theory of allomorphy proposed in Embick (2010), which is based on locality and linearity, was efficient in accounting for selection of allomorphs of R, v and Th heads. Finally, semantic type shows influence on verb type but this information can be viii manipulated in order to derive structural or metonymical coercion. The main conclusion to be drawn from the results is the fact that Brazilian Portuguese verbal morphology may reveal certain tendencies in argument and event structure, but it does not reflect sufficiently regular or consistent correlations.

The topic of this thesis is expressing lexical aspect in Czech and Italian. The theoretical part describes the aspectuality, at first in general, then in both Czech and Italian language. The first part aims to clarify the notion of grammatical and lexical aspect. The thesis also concentrates on semantics of Czech prefixes. The practical part deals with Czech verbs with multiple prefixes and their counterparts in Italian, or rather the thesis analyses how Italian express the lexical aspect. It is the contrastive analysis. The analysed data originate from the parallel corpora InterCorp version 13. Key words Lexical aspect/Aktionsart, verbal/grammatical aspect, verbs with multiple prefixes, prefixation, parallel corpora, InterCorp, Czech, Italian

Text in Hebrew with English Summary / This research describes nominal patterns with prefixes m and t as appearing in Parma A in comparison with other traditions viz. Kaufinan, Paris and Y emenite manuscripts. This research has 3 aims: 1. To describe all relevant evidence in Parma A 2. To compare evidence with data in other traditions, including the Bible and Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic sources 3. To elaborate on those unique forms in manuscripts which represent genuine Mishnaic Hebrew / Classics and Modern European Languages / D. Litt et Phil. (Semitic Languages)

Det saknas en beskrivning i den svenska grammatiken över hur adjektiv förstärks med hjälp av förled. Forskning visar att fenomenet med förstärkningar, även kallade intensifierare, uppmärksammats mer i andra språk. Syftet med denna undersökning var att beskriva och kartlägga användandet av förledsförstärkningar, samt se om det fanns några hittills oskrivna regler och mönster. Här gjordes en kvantitativ undersöking där frågeställningarna analyserades utifrån statistiska data insamlade ur två korpusar bestående av bloggtext. Adjektiv inom sinnelag, stabila egenskaper, och sinnesstäming, temporära egenskaper, samt parametrarna positiva och negativa adjektiv undersöktes. Adjektiven visade sig vara olika förstärkningsbenägna. Temporära adjektiv förstärktes hellre än stabila, negativa adjektiv hellre än positiva, kortare ord hellre än längre, och högfrekventa ord hellre än lågfrekventa. De mest grammatikaliserade förstärkningarna går att använda på större delen adjektiv och de mer lexikalt bundna på ett mindre antal adjektiv / There is no description in the Swedish grammar regarding how adjectives can be reinforced with prefixes, also known as intensifiers. Research shows that this phenomenon have recieved greater attention in other languages. The purpose of this study was to describe and map the use of prefix reinforcements, and see if any patterns or rules could be found. The quantitative research is based on statistical data collected from informal blog texts in two Swedish corpora. Adjectives on two types of mood, solid and temporary, as well as positive and negative, were investigated. The results showed that some types were more inclined to take reinforcements than others. Temporary adjectives took on more than solid ones, negative more than positive, as well as the short and frequent adjectives where more often reinforced than the longer and uncommon ones

The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the attributive noun classes, as well as their suffixal counterparts, firstly in Bantu, and secondly in Zulu. The investigation will be done with reference to aspects such as the following: the general distribution, meaning and function of the attributive noun class prefixes in Bantu. This study will also investigate the distinction between those prefixes which are exclusively used to categorise size and shape deviations, namely those belonging to classes 12/13, 19, 20, 21 and 22; and those class prefixes which have a secondary function of indicating such deviations, namely the prefixes of classes 5/6, 7/8 and 11. The main concern is the way in which these prefixes are often associated with positive or negative emotive perceptions regarding size and shape, and are therefore often used to express amelioration and derogation. In languages such as Zulu and Northern Sotho the existence of possible frozen remnants of such attributive noun class prefixes will be investigated. Some Bantu languages such as Venda that express variations in size and shape as well as the emotive perception by means of suffixes, or by a combination of prefixes and suffixes will be investigated. The possible semantic overlap between the meanings expressed by attributive class prefixes, and/or between the meanings expressed by attributive class prefixes and so-called ‘attributive suffixes’ will also be scrutinized. Apart from the aspects mentioned above, the relationship between augmentative and diminutive suffixes and the notion [+ feminine] in languages such as Zulu and Northern Sotho will be scrutinized. The occurrence of the Zulu suffix -azana/-azane, which is apparently a combination of the diminutive and augmentative suffixes, will also be investigated. This study will firstly provide a typological overview of the various strategies employed in Bantu in order to express variations in shape and size, as well as of the emotive perceptions that accompany such variations. Secondly, this study will provide an insight into the way in which shape and size variations, amelioration and derogation are expressed in Zulu through the utilisation of diminutive and augmentative suffixes. An indication will also be given of the possible diachronic development of attributive categories in this language. This study will make a significant contribution not only to the field of diachronic and comparative Bantu linguistics, but also to Zulu linguistics. This research will furthermore lead to a deeper understanding of the strategies employed in Zulu to express the semantic nuances of amelioration and derogation. / Dissertation (MA (African Languages))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / African Languages / unrestricted

Thesis (M.A. (Translation Studies and Linguistics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The prime goal of this study is to explore, form and analyse the semantic content of compound words in Sepedi. The study used the qualitative method. Data were collected using participant observations from various written sources and it was analysed through Content Analysis. The Theory of Construction Morphology was tested on endocentric, exocentric, and copulative compound words to locate the headedness of Sepedi compound words. The study revealed that the head of compound words can be located on the nominal prefix, left-hand side, right-hand side, on both nominal prefixes and it can be determined outside of the compound word for metaphoric exocentric nominal compounds. Furthermore, because of the role noun class prefixes play on determining the head of compound words, the study found that Sepedi compound words are nominals. The formation of Sepedi compound words involves the combination of different word aspects such as objects concords, deverbatives, verbal roots, stems, suffixal endings, and lexical categories such as nouns, Adjectives, and verbs. The resultant compound word of these combinations always results in a compound noun. It was recommended that future researchers should investigate the semantic content of exocentric compound words in African languages, especially the Sepedi language. The study further highlighted that there is still a need for a study that looks at the influences of nominal prefixes on the headedness of compound words in Sepedi. Furthermore, the study recommended that to alleviate the gap of shortage of literature in Sepedi, future studies should focus on word formation processes in Sepedi. / Feenix Crowdfunding and C Track Fleet Management Solutions Pty Ltd

La présente thèse a pour sujet la question du système des prépositions en latin vulgaire, ainsi que des morphèmes liés à ces dernières dans les langues indo-européennes (préverbes et préfixes). Notre objectif a été d’évaluer quelles ont pu être les spécificités relatives à l’emploi des prépositions (et des morphèmes connexes) dans la langue ordinaire, sur le plan sémasiologique comme onomasiologique. Est bâti pour ce faire le corpus le plus large possible de documents « autographes », c’est-à-dire de pièces portant une inscription directement réalisée par un latinophone (graffites, ostraca, tablettes de cire, defixiones, papyri documentaires), rédigés entre 1 et 395 p.C. La construction même de ce corpus et l’établissement d’une référenciation stable ont constitué un objectif secondaire de ce travail. La première partie établit les outils terminologiques nécessaires. Sont donc passées en revue toutes les théories relatives aux prépositions et à leur sémantisme depuis l’Antiquité, dans le but de souligner les manques et les imprécisions de la tradition terminologique. L’attention est ensuite portée sur le problème récurrent du « latin vulgaire », appellation nécessairement tolérée, même si elle demeure insatisfaisante et embarrassante. La question est spécifiquement posée au regard de la particularité du corpus, sur le plan matériel comme théorique. La notion « d’autographie » est en effet très floue, du fait de l’immixtion d’intermédiaires humains (comme les scribes, professionnels ou non), de la question de la « formularité » et des text types, et des problèmes complexes liés aux différentes formes de littératies à travers les provinces romaines. Cette partie se clôt sur les choix terminologiques et méthodologiques opérés, relativement au processus sous-jacent de collecte des données. La seconde partie présente les données. Celles-ci sont d’abord traitées sous l’angle quantitatif, avec prudence ; il s’agit d’abord d’établir quels sont les morphèmes encore en usage, quels sont ceux qui déclinent et quels sont ceux qui ont déjà disparu. Il s’agit également de comprendre quels écarts peuvent se manifester entre les données et nos attentes. On souligne ce faisant les différents processus de développement, en synchronie ou en diachronie, de certains morphèmes ou usages ; la notion de « préfixation pré-nominale », jusqu’ici peu envisagée dans les études latines, et ainsi étudiée. Le second chapitre de cette partie étudie ce matériel, sur un plan phonétique, morphosyntaxique et lexical. Il s’agit alors non seulement de découvrir les signes d’un possible renouvellement dans certaines zones de la langue (il est fait ici usage du concept de sermo castrensis, mais aussi de celui – encore peu envisagé – de sermo mercatorius) ; il s’agit en outre de comprendre pourquoi ce corpus manifeste une véritable résistance à l’égard des vulgarismes, et pourquoi l’on ne constate aucun véritable fossé entre la langue normée et celle du corpus.Le dernier chapitre se concentre sur le problème déjà ancien, mais complexe, de la chute des <-m> (et accessoirement, des <-s>) en latin vulgaire, et sur la conséquence de celle-ci au sein des groupes prépositionnels. Ce problème a une histoire (depuis Diehl), qui est rappelée afin d’expliquer comment se mélangent ici les niveaux graphiques, phonologiques et grammaticaux. Il s’agit de comprendre dans quels cas la disparition de <-m> peut être attribuée à une pure convention graphique, dans quels cas elle est relative à l’analphabétisme ou à la faible littératie des scripteurs, et dans quels cas elle constitue effectivement le premier signe (mesuré) d’un effondrement des systèmes flexionnels, dans une perspective romane. Ce chapitre s’interroge ine fine sur la capacité des locuteurs semi-lettrés, à un moment de la diachronie, à faire usage d’un « système polymorphique » (Banniard), et à choisir ainsi, bien qu’ils fussent relativement conscients des règles morphologiques, de marquer ou non le cas accusatif. / In this thesis, we deal with the question of prepositional systems in Vulgar Latin, and the linguistic material wih which it is usually associated, in indo-european languages, i.e. preverbs and prefixes. Our work aims to evaluate how specific usages of prepositions (and related material) in colloquial speech may have been, in both semasiological and onomasiological ways. For this purpose, we draw on the largest corpus of « Autographical » documents, i.e. directly inscribed artifacts, such as graffiti, ostraca, wax tablets, defixiones, documentary papyri, etc., from 1 to 395 a.D. Moreover, as a second objective ot the dissertation, we set up a fully-ordered and well-referenced corpus of our archaeological material.The first part of the thesis tries to lay the methodological tools of such the said design. Theories of prepositions and prepositional meanings from Antiquity to present reviewed are reviewed, in order to understand the lack and fuziness of inherited terminological displays. We then consider the customary problem of utilising and defining the terme « Vulgar latin » (which we tolerate, as embarrassing and unsatisfying as it is) and most specifically the peculiarity of our corpus, in a theorical and practical ways : « autography » is indeed a messy concept, due to the involvement of human go-betweens (like professional or casual scribes), the question of formularity and « text types », and the complex pattern of literacy, throughout the Roman provinces. This chapter ends with terminological and methodological choices, referring to the undergoing process of the data report.In second part of the thesis we lay out the data itself. We first deal with this data quantitativly by cautiously using statistical approaches, we try to establish which morphemes were still in use, recessing, or had already disappeared. Furthermore, we examine what kind of discrepancies could arrise between our expectation and the data. We stress, by doing so, the synchonical and diachronical expansions of certain morphemes or usages, and more specifically the question of « Pre-nominal prefixation », on which little has yet been written in classical tradition. The second part of this chapter studies the dynamics of our material phonetically, morphosyntaxically and lexically. Not only do we try to catch sight of linguistic renewals in some areas of language (dealing with the concept of sermo castrensis, or the yet unexplored sermo mercatorius), but also the evidence of a structural dragging into vulgarisms and linguistical changes in our corpus, questioning the lack of an expected « gap » between litterary standards and the language that our documents are using.The third part of our thesis deals with the very well known but very intricate problem of falling /-m/ (and, casually, falling /-s/) in Vulgar Latin, and their consequences in the prepositionnal phrases. The problem’s history (from Diehl’s work) shows up, explaining the entanglement of graphical, phonological and grammatical levels in such an inquiry. We then try to establish which part of the disappearing <-m>, in prepositional phrases, could be assigned to graphical convention, which part goes to real illiteracy (or « low-level literacy ») and which part shows the evidence for a real (but limited) starting point toward a future collapse of nominal flection, from a romance perspective. We conclude this chapter by questioning the ability of semi-literate latin-speakers, at some point of the diachronic evolution of latin language, to deal with « polymorphic » systems (as proposed by Banniard), who ware quite aware of morphological rules but choosing to mark or not mark or to omit the accusative case.