From the begiining of the 20th century producer co-operative bacon factories were established in the south of Sweden. In his thesis Lars Hansson studies how class relations were shaped and transformed within this rural industry. The producer co-operative slaughter associations consisted of a large number of members from smallholders to large scale agrarian producers. The power of the associations was concentrated in the hands of the big producers, but the manangers also had a considerable power, due to their expert knowledge of the buisness and the bacon markets in U.K. The workers of the producer co-operative slaughter houses were mostly unskilled workers, with little or no knowledge of butchering. From the 1910’s the workers unionized but their organisation was not accepted by the employers and harsh labour disputes took place during the 1920’s. From the 1930’s the farmers producer co-operative movement grew all over Sweden and they formed a political alliance with the Social democratic Party. The Swedish labour market became more peaceful as the employers and the unions began to co-operate to a greater extent. The Food Workers Union was more and more integrated in the Swedish society and thereby lost its earlier antisystemic character and were more and more transformed into a systemic movement. The slaughter house workers union had a distinct patriarchal characters from its start and its attitude towards women workers was ambivalent. During WWII, however, the attitude changed and more women were active in class practice in order to improve their situation.

The North House is a proof-of-concept prefabricated solar powered home designed for northern climates, and intended for the research and promotion of high-performance sustainable architecture. Led by faculty at the University of Waterloo, the development and design of the project involved a broad collaboration between faculty and students at the University of Waterloo, with Ryerson University and Simon Fraser University. The North House prototype competed in the U.S. Department of Energy’s Solar Decathlon in October of 2009. This thesis identifies the North House as a component-based building. It illustrates in detail the components of which the house is composed, the sequence by which they are assembled, and the details that allow for the building’s rapid assembly and disassembly. Finally, the thesis explores the possibilities afforded by componentbased architecture including adaptability, off-site fabrication and demountability. Drawing on this, the thesis projects future ways of designing buildings sustainable to both manufacture and operate.

The North House is a proof-of-concept prefabricated solar powered home designed for northern climates, and intended for the research and promotion of high-performance sustainable architecture. Led by faculty at the University of Waterloo, the development and design of the project involved a broad collaboration between faculty and students at the University of Waterloo, with Ryerson University and Simon Fraser University. The North House prototype competed in the U.S. Department of Energy’s Solar Decathlon in October of 2009. This thesis identifies the North House as a component-based building. It illustrates in detail the components of which the house is composed, the sequence by which they are assembled, and the details that allow for the building’s rapid assembly and disassembly. Finally, the thesis explores the possibilities afforded by componentbased architecture including adaptability, off-site fabrication and demountability. Drawing on this, the thesis projects future ways of designing buildings sustainable to both manufacture and operate.

La diffusion sur les plateformes néomédiatiques d’œuvres audiovisuelles, comme les sites Internet des télédiffuseurs ou des webdiffuseurs, la vidéo sur demande, la télévision mobile ou la webdistribution, modifie les risques que les producteurs audiovisuels doivent gérer normalement sur les plateformes traditionnelles, comme la télévision. La mutation des risques découle de quatre sources en particulier, soit du marché, des pratiques d’affaires, des lois et règlements et des techniques elles-mêmes. Ces sources peuvent également induire des normes pouvant constituer un cadre juridique afin de moduler ou éliminer les risques. Le présent mémoire analyse les risques encourus lors de la diffusion sur les plateformes néomédiatiques d’œuvres audiovisuelles du point de vue des producteurs par l’entremise du processus de gestion de risques. Il identifie et recense ainsi les risques en mutation et les nouveaux risques auxquels les producteurs sont confrontés. Puis, les risques identifiés y sont définis et le cadre juridique est abordé dans le contexte de la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie de gestion de risques et des mesures afin d’atténuer ou d’éviter les risques encourus par les activités de production et d’exploitation des producteurs. / The broadcasting of audiovisual works over new media platforms (for example : broadcasters’ websites, video on demand, mobile television or the distribution over the Internet) alters the risks producers usually face when broadcasting over traditional platforms like television. The transformation of risks has four main sources: the market, the business practices, the laws and regulations and the technologies themselves. These sources may also engender standards to create a legal framework that can modulate or eliminate the risks. This thesis will analyze, from the point of view of audiovisual producers, the risks incurred by broadcasting audiovisual works over new media platforms. This analysis will be made under the theory of risk management. First, the modified risks will be identifying as well as the new risks the producers are confronted with. Then, these risks will be defining and the legal framework will be studied as well as the risk management strategy that could help producers limit or avoid risks incurred by their productions and their exploitation activities.

Plusieurs espèces s’alimentant en groupe ont un comportement correspondant au jeu producteur-chapardeur (P-C). Même si à l’origine ce jeu ne prenait pas en compte plusieurs éléments susceptibles d’être présents dans un groupe social, certaines études récentes suggèrent que des facteurs, notamment le niveau de défense des ressources et les liens sociaux, pourraient affecter ses prédictions. Notre étude avait pour but d’étudier les effets de ces facteurs en exposant des groupes de diamants mandarins à quatre traitements expérimentaux faisant varier la taille du groupe et le degré d’attachement des oiseaux. Notre étude est la première à montrer que le niveau de défense des ressources a un réel effet sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques producteur et chapardeur. De fait, contrairement à ce qui est prédit dans le jeu P-C original, nous avons trouvé que la fréquence des chapardeurs n’augmente pas avec la taille du groupe dans un contexte favorisant la défense des ressources. Par ailleurs, nous n’avons pas trouvé d’effet significatif du lien social sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques. Cependant, nos résultats suggèrent que les liens de couple changent le comportement individuel des sujets en ce qui a trait au chapardage et à l’agressivité : bien que le résultat soit non significatif, les individus chapardent davantage leur partenaire social que les autres membres du groupe, mais avec une agressivité plus faible. Les résultats obtenus sont prometteurs et ouvrent la voie à de nombreuses autres études sur l’effet des liens sociaux et la défense des ressources chez les espèces grégaires. / Many species foraging in groups show behaviours in agreement with the producer-scrounger (PS) game. Originally, the PS game did not consider many elements likely to be found within feeding groups. However, recent studies suggest that some factors, namely resource defendability and social attachment, could indeed influence the predictions of the PS game. Thus, to investigate the effects of resource defendability and social bonds, we exposed flocks of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), a monogamous species, to four different treatments intended to vary: (1) group size and, (2) degree of attachment among birds in a group. For the first time, we show that resource defendability has a true impact on the use of the two foraging tactics in the PS game. As a matter of fact, contrary to what is predicted in the original PS game, we found that the frequency of scrounger tactic did not increase with group size when tested in an economically defendable feeding context. On the other hand, even though pair bonding changed the individual scrounging and aggressive behaviours of the birds, we found no significant influence of this factor on the tactic use. Although the result was not significant, we found that scrounging was more frequent between social pairs than between experimental pairs, but individuals initiated aggressions towards their social partner with a lesser intensity. Thus, our results are promising and they call for many more studies on the effects of social bonds and resource defendability in gregarious species.

Cooperatives are a means through which farmers may gain economic power by reducing unit transaction costs associated with production, marketing and distribution of products. In South Africa, cooperatives are promoted as a means of advancing economic development in rural areas through empowerment, development of income generating activities, improvement of human resource capacity, and increased savings and investment. The new Cooperatives Act 14 of 2005 was enacted in August 2005 to promote the role of cooperatives as organisations for pro-poor development in South Africa and to increase their chance of survival in the economy. This study uses a New Institutional Economics (NIE) framework to analyse the Cooperatives Act and its worth as a vehicle for promoting pro-poor development. A hypothetical cooperative, predicated by the new Act, was analysed using the NIE to identify institutional problems likely to constrain the collective efforts of small producers. A case study approach was then used to analyse three production cooperatives in KwaZulu-Natal that were registered post August 2005 and still operational in 2008. Interviews were conducted with individual members, directors and project managers (where applicable) between May and July 2008. Open-ended questions provided the flexibility needed to explore the institutional roots of problems identified by respondents. Free-rider, horizon, portfolio, control and influence problems were identified in the case studies. These problems, which stem from ill-defined voting and benefit rights, resulted in low equity investment, low investment in long term assets, a preference for current cash flows rather than future investment, and social conflict – all of which constrained the competitiveness and growth prospects of the cooperatives studied. In an attempt to mitigate these problems, two of the cooperatives shed their poorest members, a solution which is not consistent with the objective of pro-poor economic development. Additionally, two cooperatives opted to create their own rules to reward investors with capital gains - an institutional arrangement that is not permitted by the new Act. It is concluded that the new Act should be amended to give cooperatives greater flexibility in their institutional arrangements. In particular, cooperatives should be allowed to issue tradable equity shares that offer benefits proportional to shareholding. If these tradable equity shares carry voting rights and are offered to non-patron investors, aggregate voting rights conferred on these non-patron investors should be capped to prevent loss of control by patron members. It is further recommended that the same level of start-up support should be made available to all producer groups that formally register their business, regardless of the business model chosen, and that member empowerment should be an essential requirement for registration and public funding. Keywords: Agricultural Cooperatives, Cooperatives Act, New Institutional Economics, Case Study / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

This dissertation investigates the impact of institutional and governance factors on the performance of 10 selected smallholder agricultural cooperatives (case studies) in KwaZulu- Natal (KZN). All the selected cooperatives were traditionally structured (e.g., one-member, one-vote system). Due to logistical and administrative constraints, the selected smallholder cooperatives were drawn from the EThekwini and UMgungundlovu Districts (the latter comprising of two sub-districts, namely Camperdown and Msunduzi), which incorporate the major cities of Durban and Pietermaritzburg. Five of the cooperatives grow and market vegetables, three produce and market poultry, one is a beef production cooperative and another operates a bakery. Information from the interviews suggests that members of the selected smallholder cooperatives do not fully understand cooperative principles and have high expectations of potential benefits of being members. Descriptive analysis of the case studies describes total membership of each selected cooperative; average number of management meetings per month; gender and age composition of cooperative members; the characteristics of chairpersons of these cooperatives (e.g., gender, age and education); the initial capital structure of these cooperatives; annual turnover; growth opportunities; and institutional and governance factors influencing the performance of these cooperatives. The results of a cluster analysis suggest that the performance of the selected smallholder cooperatives is influenced by institutional and governance problems. Institutional problems give rise to low levels of equity and debt capital, reliance on government funding, low levels of investment, and subsequent loss of members. Governance problems are strongly linked to the absence of secret ballot, low levels of education, lack of production and management skills training, weak marketing arrangements and consequent low returns to members as patrons or investors. The conclusion is that appropriate institutional arrangements and good governance are important to the performance of enterprises initiated by groups of smallholders. South Africa’s new Cooperatives Act prevents smallholder cooperatives from adopting good institutional arrangements. Alternative ownership structures such as close corporations and private companies offer better institutional arrangements and opportunities for equity-sharing partnerships. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Collective smallholder farming has been widely promoted as a vehicle for smallholder agricultural development in South Africa. As a result, agricultural co-operative registrations in South Africa are increasing. However, research suggests that South African co-operatives have generally not been effective, successful and functional. This study investigated the elements constituting an effective and functional primary agricultural co-operative among three smallholder agricultural co-operatives. It is expected that identification of these elements may enable institutions that offer support to co-operatives make better decisions to improve smallholder farming through primary agricultural co-operatives. Understanding of these elements could inform the efforts for members of co-operatives to achieve their set objectives and thus improve smallholder agriculture profitability. Three rural agricultural co-operatives in the Local Municipalities of Mooi-Mpofana, Mkhambathini, and Richmond in the Umgungundlovu District Municipality were purposively selected for the study because they were registered agricultural co-operatives. Inyamvubu Co-operative (from Mooi-Mpofana) was larger in membership, and well established compared to Umphumela (from Mkhambathini) and Ingwe-Mndeni (from Richmond). The sample included the purposively selected members and non-members of agricultural co-operatives to explore the differences and provide insight to the knowledge, opinions and perceptions of collective farming. A framework for analysing the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives was developed using literature of objectives of agricultural co-operatives, success factors of smallholder agriculture and organisational effectiveness. This framework was used to analyse the effectiveness of the three co-operatives. Focus group discussions, Force Field Analysis and a survey were used for data collection. The study revealed that the three co-operatives have clearly defined group objectives aligned to those set out by the South African government. The main identified objectives of farming for the three co-operatives included; creation of employment and income generating activities, improving access to funding, strengthening market access and strengthening human and community development. Activities carried out by the three co-operatives took advantage of opportunities in the value chain including production, marketing, and transportation of produce to markets. However, farmers’ activities were hampered by a number of constraints. Production capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by resource constraints such as lack of access to land, machinery and equipment, finances and information relevant to production. Marketing, transportation and financial management capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by poor networking skills, poor infrastructure and low literacy levels. Management capability in the three co-operatives was challenged by complex group dynamics characterised by conflict of opinions and issues related to free-rider, horizon, and portfolio problems. Low capability of the three co-operatives to mobilise resources, use the limited resources available and low capability to manage institutional arrangements rendered the co-operatives ineffective in achieving their set objectives. The study recommends strategies for ensuring the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives. These include strategies for addressing internal and external issues affecting the co-operatives. Direct intervention from government was recommended to improve production through revising land allocation systems, improving extension services and strict monitoring of effective use of government resources provided to farmers. Government should improve access and training to relevant technologies to improve the processing and packaging capabilities of co-operatives. Marketing and management activities should be supported through provision of improved infrastructure and relevant training. Farmers themselves should consider pooling resources for market rental of crop land, engage in value added activities, and develop informed marketing programs and cost-effective distributing mechanisms. Farmers should elect an effective board of members that will ensure enforcement of agreements and constitution. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The integration of dispatchable renewable energies like biomass, geothermal and reservoir hydro technologies into an electrical network present no greater challenge than the integration of conventional power technologies for which are well understood by Eskom engineers. However, renewable energies that are based on resources that fluctuate throughout the day and from season to season, like wind and solar, introduce a number of challenges that Eskom engineers have not dealt with before. It is current practice for Eskom‟s generation to follow the load in order to balance the demand and supply. Through Eskom‟s load dispatching desk at National Control, generator outputs are adjusted on an hourly basis with balancing reserves making up only a small fraction of the total generation. Through the Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity of 2010, the Department of Energy has set some targets towards integrating renewable energy, including wind and solar generation, into the South African electricity market consequently introducing variability on the supply side. With demand that varies continually, maintaining a steady balance between supply and demand is already a challenging task. When the supply also becomes variable and less certain with the introduction of non-dispatchable renewable energy, the task becomes even more challenging. The aim of this research study is to determine whether the resources that previously helped to balance the variability in demand will still be adequate to balance variability in both demand and supply. The study will only concentrate on variable or non-dispatchable renewable energies as will be added to the South African electrical network according to the first two rounds of the Department of Energy‟s Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme. This research study only looks into the balancing challenge and does not go into an analysis of voltage stability or network adequacy, both of which warrant in depth analysis. / Thesis (MIng (Development and Management Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

This study provides the strategies that can be implemented to promote the agricultural sector in KwaZulu-Natal and the theory behind economic development, as well as the importance of trade and export growth. There are restrictions in terms of trade and it is important that these are addressed before making a decision to choose a viable, potential and realistic country to export to. This study is aimed answer the research question if agriculture can be seen as a primary export sector in KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, this study includes background on the KwaZulu-Natal Province and mainly focus on the indicators such as GDP, employment, health issues and other indicators that will indicate that this province is of importance in South Africa in terms of the agricultural sector. This study uses SARS data to analyse and calculate the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) of all agricultural products of the province. This is done to identify if there is a comparative advantage in the products studied in this study. The products of KwaZulu-Natal also show that this province’s agriculture can be seen as a primary export sector and that this sector is a major contribution to South Africa’s GDP and development. This study uses the Decision Support Model (DSM) to compare the results from the Revealed Comparative Advantage to identify the products and sectors which have the most export potential in the international market. This study reveals that the agricultural products and industries in KwaZulu-Natal with the highest overall export potential are chocolate and cocoa preps, refined soybean oil, and leather products as the three top performers among agricultural products and have the most export potential in the province. Concluding remarks are based on the findings made throughout the study. / Thesis (MCom (International Trade))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012