In this dissertation the literature on suicidal behaviour is reviewed, with particular emphasis on professional conceptualizations and understanding as informed by the psychiatric and sociological paradigms. Basic postulates of the Ecosystemic paradigm, as it is informed by Maturana's second-order cybernetic approach was discussed. The effect of such an approach on therapy with suicidal individuals was pointed out. It became clear that perceived methodological problems experienced when researching suicidal behaviour from a Newtonian/realist paradigm can be side-stepped when viewed from an Ecosystemic paradigm. It was finally proposed that an ethic of participation, as informed by a second-order cybernetic approach, be adopted when viewing the suicide situation. In the process ethics was reconceptualized as an awareness of the therapist's participation in whatever is created, and not in finding the ''right" way when working with suicidal individuals. / Psychology / M.A. (Clinical Psychology)

國立政治大學風險管理與保險研究所八十七學年度第二學期碩士論文「醫療行為之法律責任與保險之研究」，旨在探討醫事人員執行醫療業務所生之責任與保險之相關問題。全文共分十章，約十六萬字，由研究生陳麗芬所撰，各章內容簡述如下： 第一章 緒論：隨著高等教育普及並醫學資訊發達，醫療糾紛可預期的有增無減，本章即說明本論文之研究動機、目的、所採行的方法及研究範圍。 第二章 醫療行為與醫療業務：醫療行為之意義為貫穿論文的重要概念，須就主管機關衛生署之見解與學理上加以定義。瞭解醫療行為定義後，須加以分類以適應不同醫療人員之業務範圍，並用以區別類似醫療行為之不同。最後論定不當醫療行為之內涵。 第三章 醫療行為實施者及其業務範圍：醫學科技分工精細，一件重大醫療行為往往需由整個醫療團隊合作始竟全功，故須區分醫療人員之身分與其法定業務，以明權責所在。本章另一重點為藥師、藥物、與藥害救濟的介紹，及醫師使用藥物治療時應盡之注意。 第四章 醫療契約：醫療契約之法律性質並非單純委任、承攬、或僱傭，而係非典型之混合契約。醫療契約當事人之身分，就病患的精神狀態與醫師之地位不同可組合成數種情形，並非絕對以病患或醫師為契約當事人。確定醫療契約之性質後，方能確認醫病雙方依契約所應盡之義務與所享之權利，並因此衍生出債務不履行之責任。 第五章 醫療契約之債務不履行：醫療債務不履行以不完全給付為最多，通常更因加害給付而致病患傷亡。欲要求醫師負債務不履行責任，除因醫師本身之故意過失外，醫療院所就醫療人員之故意過失要負同一責任。除故意過失之一般歸責原則外，消費者保護法創立無過失責任主義，至於是否適用於醫療服務爭議仍大。 第六章 醫療侵權行為：侵權行為之七要件，在醫師侵權責任領域同樣適用，但內容則不同。因病患同意而阻卻違法、疫學因果關係、醫師之監督過失、特異體質、醫療慣行及醫療團隊之共同侵權等為重點。 第七章 醫師業務責任保險市場概況：就我國目前狀況及英國、美國、日本的市場狀況說明。 第八章 醫師業務責任保險單之研究：首先認識醫師業務責任風險為何，是否為可保風險，然後再就保單條款重點部分加以研討，互相參照國內保單範本與業者實際出售之保單及美國保單，評析其間優缺點。主要有承保範圍、因果關係、除外不保、被保險人、責任限額、自負額、Claim Made Basis 及Occurrence Basis、索賠通知、擔保與先決條件、保險人之棄權與禁止抗辯、防禦義務、仲裁與強制調解、及第三人直接請求權等。 第九章 除保險外之其他避險方式：計有自己保險與專屬保險、相互保險（保險合作社）、行政上補償制度。 第十章 結論與建議：分別就醫學部分、法律部分、保險部分就所知提出結論並建議，希冀建構一個更和諧的醫療環境。 略 / 略

Computers have become indispensable in all walks of life, causing people to rely increasingly on their accurate performance. Defective computer programs, the incorrect use of computer programs and the non-use of computer programs can cause serious damage. Expert systems are an application of artificial intelligence techniques whereby the human reasoning process is simulated in a computer system, enabling the system to act as a human expert when executing a task. Expert systems are used by professional users as an aid in reaching a decision and by nonprofessional users to solve a problem or to decide upon a specific course of action. As such they can be compared to a consumer product through which professional services are sold. The various parties that may possibly be held liable in the event of damage suffered by the use of expert systems are identified as consisting of two main groups, namely the producers and the users. Because of the frequent exemption of liability for any consequential loss in standard form computer contracts, the injured user may often have only a delictual action at her disposal. The faultbased delictual actions in SA law give inadequate protection to unsuspecting software users who incur ·personal and property damage through the use of defective expert systems since it is almost impossible for an unsophisticated injured party to prove the negligence of the software developer during the technical production process. For this reason it is recommended that software liability be grounded on strict liability in analogy to the European Directive on Liability for Defective Products. It is also pointed out that software standards and quality assurance procedures have a major role to play in the determination of the elements of wrongfulness and negligence in software liability and that the software industry should be accorded professional status to ensure a safe standard of computer programming. / Private Law / LL.D.

In this dissertation the literature on suicidal behaviour is reviewed, with particular emphasis on professional conceptualizations and understanding as informed by the psychiatric and sociological paradigms. Basic postulates of the Ecosystemic paradigm, as it is informed by Maturana's second-order cybernetic approach was discussed. The effect of such an approach on therapy with suicidal individuals was pointed out. It became clear that perceived methodological problems experienced when researching suicidal behaviour from a Newtonian/realist paradigm can be side-stepped when viewed from an Ecosystemic paradigm. It was finally proposed that an ethic of participation, as informed by a second-order cybernetic approach, be adopted when viewing the suicide situation. In the process ethics was reconceptualized as an awareness of the therapist's participation in whatever is created, and not in finding the ''right" way when working with suicidal individuals. / Psychology / M.A. (Clinical Psychology)

This thesis examines the validity of exclusionary clauses in medical contracts, more especially, hospital contracts in which the healthcare provider exonerates itself against edictal liability arising from the negligent conduct of its staff, resulting in the patient suffering damages. In assessing whether these types of clauses should be outlawed by our courts, this thesis attempts to synthesize six major traditional areas of law, namely, the law of delict, the law of contract, medical law and ethics, international and foreign law, statutory law and constitutional law into a legal conceptual framework relating specifically to exclusionary clauses in medical contracts in South Africa. This thesis highlights systemic inconsistencies with regard to the central issue, namely, whether these types of clauses are valid or not, especially, given the fact that the practice of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts has hitherto traditionally been assessed within the framework of the law of contract. The alignment of the various pre-existing areas of statutory and common law with the Constitution highlights that an inter-disciplinary and purposive approach under the value-driven Constitution, brings about a less fragmented picture in assessing the validity of these types of clauses. This approach accords with the new solicitude of the executive, the judiciary, the legislature and academia to transform the South African legal system not only in terms of procedural law but also substantive law. This has resulted in the alignment with constitutional principles and the underlying values to test the validity of these types of clauses, alternatively, contracts. Whereas pre-constitutionally the assessment of disclaimers in hospital contracts was done against the stratum of antiquated principles, namely, freedom of contract and the sanctity of contract, ignoring values such as reasonableness, fairness and conscionability, post-constitutionally, because the values that underlie the Bill of Rights and which affects all spheres of law, including the law of contract, concepts such as fairness, equity, reasonableness should weigh heavily with the decision-maker. In this regard, broader medico-legal considerations, normative medical ethics and the common law principles of good faith, fairness and reasonableness play a fundamental role in the assessment of contractual provisions, including the practice of disclaimers or exclusionary clauses in hospital contracts. This thesis critically examines how these types of clauses or contracts ought to be adjudicated eventually against the background of such alignment. It concludes that the entering into a hospital contract, in which the patient exonerates a hospital and its staff from liability flowing from the hospital or its staff's negligence causing damages to the patient, would be inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid. In the old order in which traditional divisions of law have been encouraged, a fragmented approach resulted in legal in congruencies which, in turn, created turbulence and a lot of uncertainty. This approach is apposite to that which the new constitutionally based legal system, aims to achieve. The rights in the Bill of Rights which are interconnected and which influences all spheres of law, including contract law, offers a fairer basis upon which, the validity of contracts, or contractual provisions, can be measured than, the pure contract approach. In this regard, although contracts or contractual provisions in the past may have been unfair and unreasonable, the courts, however, refused to strike them down purely on this basis. The law of contract, as a legal vehicle for adjudicating the validity of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts, is therefore not ideal. This is primarily due to the antiquated approach the South African courts have always taken in this area of law. The law of delict, statutory law and medical law, standing alone, also does not provide a satisfactory answer. What is needed is an integrated approach in which the traditional areas of law are united and wherein constitutional principles and values, give much guidance and direction. Alternatively, should the unification of the traditional areas of law not be possible in bringing about fair and equitable results, the introduction of legislative measures may very well be indicated. / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Public Law / unrestricted

I uppsatsen utreds vad försäkring är samt vad affärsrisker är och hur de försäkras inom ramen för ansvarsförsäkringen. Viktiga frågor är var, och varför, gränsen för affärsriskers försäkringsbarhet dras som den gör, samt huruvida en ny struktur och systematik kan ge upphov till en mer ändamålsenlig gränsdragning. För att kunna förstå och argumentera kring behandlingen av affärsrisker i ansvarsförsäkringen, samt för att kunna omfamna ämnessfären med ett helhetsgrepp, måste först en relation till försäkringens väsen byggas. Kunskapen om vad försäkring är och varför försäkring finns utgör oumbärliga fundament i argumentationen om affärsriskers försäkringsbara vara eller icke vara. De försäkringsrättsliga principerna och den normativa bas som bygger upp rättsområdet synliggör ramen för försäkringsavtalsparternas förhållande och rekvisiten för försäkringsbarheten. Dessa principer och normer utgör sedermera bakgrunden som affärsriskerna ses emot i analysen. Ansvarsförsäkringen täcker den försäkrades skadeståndsansvar. En uppdelning kan göras mellan hur täckning sker av kontraktuella skadestånds- och ersättningsansvar respektive utomobligatoriska skadeståndsansvar. I och med att professions- och rådgivningsansvaret behandlas annorlunda än ansvaret i andra tjänsteverksamheter finns det en principiell vinst i att belysa det separat. Affärsriskerna leder fram till ett eventuellt ansvar och hur de behandlas kan ses i de omfattnings- och undantagsvillkor som återfinns i den vanliga ansvarsförsäkringen och i GLI-försäkringen. I uppsatsen genomgås följande utvidgande och undantagande villkor: undantaget för ren förmögenhetsskada, undantaget för omhändertagen egendom, undantaget för garantier och utfästelser, undantaget för förutsebar skada, undantaget för skada på levererad egendom, tillägget för ren förmögenhetsskada, återkallelsetillägget, tillägget för ingrediens- och komponentskada, åtkomst- och återställandetillägget samt goodwilltillägget. Gränsdragningen för täckning av affärsrisker i ansvarsförsäkringen är spretig och förefaller inte utgå ifrån en bakomliggande systematik. De gemensamma nämnarna analyseras dock, vilket ger en uppfattning av de syften som försäkringsbranschen vill uppnå med avgränsningen mot vissa affärsrisker. Med erfarenheter från vad försäkringens väsen är, hur och varför gränsdragningen görs samt dess, ur ändamålssynpunkt, inte helt tillfredställande resultat, kan en ny struktur och systematik föreslås. Förhoppningsvis leder det till en mer genomtänkt och förståelig hantering av affärsrisker i ansvarsförsäkringsfrågor. / In this thesis, I examine what insurance is, together with what business risk is and how business risks are insured in the context of liability insurance. Important questions are where, and why, the boundaries of the insurability of business risks are set as they are, and also whether a new structure and systematics could give rise to a more suitable delimitation. To be able to understand and argue about how business risks are treated in the context of liability insurance, and also to be able to approach the sphere of the subject holistically, a relation to the essence of insurance must first be built. The knowledge about what insurance is and why it exists is an indispensable foundation for the argumentation around the insurability of business risks. The principles and the normative base that make up the legal area of insurance law reveal the framework of the relationship between the parties of the insurance contract and the requirements of insurability. These principles and norms subsequently form the background against which the business risks are seen in the analysis. The liability insurance covers the liability of the insured. A distinction can be made between how the insurance covers contractual liability and non-contractual liability. Since professional liability, such as the liability of advisors, is treated differently from the liability of other service businesses, there is a principal benefit in elucidating it separately. The business risks lead to a potential liability, and how they are treated can be seen in the regular and global liability insurance policies. In this thesis, the following expanding and excluding policies are covered. Exclusion of pure financial loss, property in trust, promise or guarantee, foreseeable damage and damage to delivered property. Addition of pure financial loss, recall, claims due to ingredients or components, access and restoration costs, and goodwill. The boundary of coverage of business risks in the context of liability insurance is fuzzy and does not appear to be set based upon any underlying systematics. The common denominators are, however, analyzed which gives an idea of the ends that the insurance industry wants to achieve through the delimitation against certain business risks. With knowledge of what constitutes the essence of insurance, of how and why the boundaries are set as they are and of their, from a purpose-oriented point of view, not entirely satisfactory results, a new structure and systematics can be proposed. Hopefully, it leads to a more thought-out and comprehensible treatment of business risks in matters regarding liability insurance.