Due to the critical corruptions revealed in superior governments in recent years, people tended to question the probity of the government, even resulted in crisis of governance and attenuation of national competitiveness. Therefore the issues with ethics decision among government and moral principles of functionaries have undoubtedly become significant to be examined and solved, after the 2008 election. The moral value cognitions and dicisions of functionaries currently appear to be dinamic and complex. This research thus adopts in-depth interviews with first-level directors in Taitung County Government. Concepts of Normative Ethics and Applied Ethics, which were introduced in the research of domestic scholar Xiao Wu-tong, were adopted as the foundation of this research. Ten decisive values and controversial issues were employed in this research to examine local government director¡¦s dilemma of moral deciding based on their personal judgments and basic assumptions. This research discovered that most directors, who were interviewed, consider pursuing on long-term loyalty on the basis of laws and regulations as the objective. Directors, who are local elites and also subordinates of magistrate, always have moral conflicts. They highly agree with that a superintendent¡¦s promises and model himself are beneficial to form an incorruptible organization culture. Unified rules are lacked to regulate service ethics of functionaries. The establishment of exclusive organizations dealing with ethics and laws, and the integration of against corruption agencies, still require more efforts. For instance, the mechanism of civil services professions, the legislation of protection to expose bribery, the set up of crime of properties from unknown source into current ¡§Act on Property-Declaration by Public Servants¡¨ are practical matters need to be concerned. In the end, this research proposed several suggestions, providing government as references for planning acting administrative ethics, and rehabilitate peoples¡¦ trust toward government.

Temos problematika. LR Administracinių bylų teisenos įstatyme yra pateiktas sąrašas subjektų, pagal kurių kreipimąsi įstatymų nustatytais atvejais ir esant tam tikroms sąlygoms teismas imasi nagrinėti administracinę bylą dėl viešojo intereso pažeidimo, taip pat kurie gali kreipti į teismą su pareiškimu dėl viešojo intereso pažeidimo . Tarp šių subjektų minimos ir įstaigos bei organizacijos. Bendruomenių centrų teisinio statuso ir veiklos nereglamentuoja joks specialus įstatymas, todėl, vykdydami savo veiklą ir siekdami savo tikslų, kuriais iš esmės siekiama tenkinti bendruosius bendruomenės narių interesus, kurie, tikėtina, tam tikrais atvejais gali sutapti su viešuoju interesu, bendruomenių centrai susiduria su klausimu – ar gali bendruomenės centras kreiptis į administracinį teismą su pareiškimu dėl viešojo intereso gynimo, o jei taip, tai kokiais atvejais jam tokia teisė suteikiama. Temos aktualumas. „Šiandien daugumoje Europos šalių į santykį tarp piliečio ir valstybės nebėra žiūrima kaip į siekį išsaugoti valstybės valdžią. Priešingai, dėmesio centre ... atsiduria piliečio teisių apsauga nuo galimo valstybės piktnaudžiavimo“ . Pastaraisiais metais itin jaučiamas visuomenės aktyvumas ginant savo teises ir interesus. Kuriamos įvairios organizacijos, judėjimai, iniciatyvinės grupės, siekiama dalyvauti visuomenei aktualių sprendimų priėmimo procese, kontroliuoti viešojo administravimo institucijų ir pareigūnų priimamų sprendimų dėl aktualių visuomenei ar jos grupėms... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The relationship between the citizen and the state in most European states is no longer understood in terms of preservation of states power, but focused on the protection of citizen rights again abuse by the state. In these latter years efforts of society to protect its rights and interests are very appreciable: various non-governmental organizations, activity groups are formed to strive to participate in enactment of decisions in public sector by administrative authorities, to have an opportunity to test the legality and transparency of these decisions and administrative procedures, to appeal the decision and so on. More and more attention is given not only to protection of private person against abuse by administrative authorities, but to protection of public interest – rights and freedoms that are essentially significant, necessary and valuable to the society. Establishment of community organizations or community centers is here a new process, just recently started in Lithuania, but nowadays getting intense – more and more community organizations are formed as in urban, so in the rural territories. There is no one act to regulate basic principles in formatting community organizations as well as carrying on its activities, legal personality, rights and responsibilities and other essential questions, so there comes some obscurities, ambiguities and concepts complexities about community organizations and community. Recognizing community as people, living in certain... [to full text]

O objeto do estudo diz respeito a como demandas individuais podem resultar em demandas coletivas. Interesses são relações entre necessidades e os bens capazes de satisfazê-las. Nesse sentido, interesses podem ser entendidos como uma demanda por um bem. Interesses coletivos se relacionam a bens capazes de satisfazer necessidades de uma coletividade. O conflito de interesses ocorre nos casos em que o atendimento a um interesse importa a denegação de outro. O Direito pode ser visto como um instrumento ético de resolução de conflito de interesses. O processo civil tradicionalmente foi concebido para a resolução de conflitos individuais. Com o reconhecimento dos interesses coletivos pelo Direito, novas técnicas processuais foram desenvolvidas para permitir a resolução de conflitos coletivos. Apesar disso, o número de demandas individuais relacionadas com questões coletivas cresce exponencialmente, causando o congestionamento de processos nos tribunais e a denegação de justiça. Questões estruturais, culturais e legais são fatores que levam a esse problema. Novas técnicas deveriam ser implementadas para a conversão de demandas individuais em demandas coletivas nos casos em que o seu objeto seja incindível e pertinente a uma coletividade. / The scope of the study pertains to how individual claims may result in collective (aggregated) claims. Interests are relationships between needs and the goods that can fulfill them. In this sense, interests can be conceived as a claim for a good. Collective interests relate to goods that are able to satisfy needs of a group of people. A conflict of interests takes place when the accomplishment of one precludes the other. The Law may be conceived as an ethical tool to the resolution of conflict of interests. Traditional litigation schemes were designed for the resolution of individual conflicts. With the recognition of collective rights by the Law, new civil procedure techniques were developed to allow resolution of collective conflicts. Despite that, the number of individual claims related to collective issues grows exponentially, causing a backlog of cases and the denial of justice. Structural, cultural and legal issues are factors leading to this problem. New techniques should be designed to convert individual claims into collective claims in cases where their object is indivisible and pertains to a group.

O objeto do estudo diz respeito a como demandas individuais podem resultar em demandas coletivas. Interesses são relações entre necessidades e os bens capazes de satisfazê-las. Nesse sentido, interesses podem ser entendidos como uma demanda por um bem. Interesses coletivos se relacionam a bens capazes de satisfazer necessidades de uma coletividade. O conflito de interesses ocorre nos casos em que o atendimento a um interesse importa a denegação de outro. O Direito pode ser visto como um instrumento ético de resolução de conflito de interesses. O processo civil tradicionalmente foi concebido para a resolução de conflitos individuais. Com o reconhecimento dos interesses coletivos pelo Direito, novas técnicas processuais foram desenvolvidas para permitir a resolução de conflitos coletivos. Apesar disso, o número de demandas individuais relacionadas com questões coletivas cresce exponencialmente, causando o congestionamento de processos nos tribunais e a denegação de justiça. Questões estruturais, culturais e legais são fatores que levam a esse problema. Novas técnicas deveriam ser implementadas para a conversão de demandas individuais em demandas coletivas nos casos em que o seu objeto seja incindível e pertinente a uma coletividade. / The scope of the study pertains to how individual claims may result in collective (aggregated) claims. Interests are relationships between needs and the goods that can fulfill them. In this sense, interests can be conceived as a claim for a good. Collective interests relate to goods that are able to satisfy needs of a group of people. A conflict of interests takes place when the accomplishment of one precludes the other. The Law may be conceived as an ethical tool to the resolution of conflict of interests. Traditional litigation schemes were designed for the resolution of individual conflicts. With the recognition of collective rights by the Law, new civil procedure techniques were developed to allow resolution of collective conflicts. Despite that, the number of individual claims related to collective issues grows exponentially, causing a backlog of cases and the denial of justice. Structural, cultural and legal issues are factors leading to this problem. New techniques should be designed to convert individual claims into collective claims in cases where their object is indivisible and pertains to a group.

Tirant les conséquences du constat, devenu banal, de la libéralisation du droit international privé contemporain, une tentative de systématisation de la matière peut être entreprise à partir du contexte néolibéral qui est désormais le sien. La doctrine néolibérale à l’œuvre en Europe, et trouvant sa source dans l’ordolibéralisme allemand, préconise un interventionnisme juridique constant afin de construire un marché et d’en généraliser la logique à l’ensemble des rapports sociaux. En conséquence, les moyens offerts aux individus pour satisfaire les intérêts privés sont accrus alors que, dans le même temps, l’État développe et défend un intérêt public pour la bonne tenue des relations privées. Un phénomène de prévalence des intérêts parcourt ainsi le droit international privé. Il consiste en une multiplication des habilitations, tant à destination des parties que du juge, leur conférant le pouvoir de satisfaire, respectivement, l’intérêt privé et l’intérêt public. À la généralisation du principe d’autonomie bien au-delà de la matière contractuelle et au-delà de la détermination de la loi applicable, dans la détermination de la compétence juridictionnelle, répond ainsi une généralisation du recours aux lois de police, à l’ordre public international, au for de nécessité ou à différentes formes de forum non conveniens. Mais, le phénomène de prévalence des intérêts multipliant les risques de conflits d’intérêts, il rend nécessaire une discipline de coordination des intérêts. Cette discipline repose sur deux fondements complémentaires : la supériorité ontologique de l’intérêt public, d’une part, et conception privatiste du droit international privé, d’autre part. Alors que la supériorité ontologique de l’intérêt public implique sa supériorité sur l’intérêt privé, la conception privatiste du droit international privé impose, en retour, l’interprétation stricte des méthodes de satisfaction de l’intérêt public. Là se trouve l’équilibre. Cependant, l’étude du droit positif laisse apparaître des hypothèses de dé-coordination des intérêts résultant, notamment, du déclenchement de l’exception d’ordre public international lorsqu’il inclut des droits garantis par la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme et de la paralysie des lois de police par le choix de la juridiction compétente. Un intérêt prévaut alors indûment sur l’autre. Pour y remédier et re-coordonner les intérêts, il est proposé de recourir à un raisonnement en proportionnalité de manière à rétablir la place normalement échue à chacun d’eux. / This study aims to propose a systematization of Private International Law from the European neoliberal context, based on the German ordoliberalism. This doctrine recommends a permanent legal interventionism to build a market and generalizes this logic to every social relation. Therefore, the means offered to individuals to satisfy their private interests are increased while, at the same time, the State actively defends a public interest in private relations. Thus, Private International Law is permeated by a phenomenon of primacy of interests. It leads to a rise of power-conferring norms, both for parties and the judge, to respectively satisfy private and public interests. Yet, this phenomenon increases the potential for conflict of interests and requires a method of coordination of interests based on two complementary principles: the ontological superiority of public interest, and the private conception of Private International Law. The analysis of positive law reveals some situations of dis-coordination of interests that could be overruled by the use of proportionality to restore the role properly assigned to each of them.

面對要做的事無限，但能力有限之困境，政府部門的發展之道大致可歸納為二：（一）建立與提昇政府的能力—此涵蓋採行廣泛措施、活動的概念，這些措施的目的在於提昇公民和政府的能力，冀望產生更有效及更有回應力的公共服務與財貨。（二）市政業務民營化或協力化—透過民營化或協力化機制（規劃者、協調者、整合者及推動者）統合、激發運用民間資源。 　　在面對資源稀少性下，可運用幾項策略：（1）推動民營化；（2）形塑公民意識；（3）採行減肥措施；（4）採行合夥措施；（5）採用第三部門等五種策略。其中採行合夥措施接近公私部門協力關係，基本上，推動公私部門協力關係需奠立於公民意識和參與基礎之上。因為若有堅固的公民意識和參與基礎，將能導引公共政策的走向，同時減輕政府沉重的負擔。 　　在面對沉重的財政壓力與政策需求下，政府已開始改變做事方式，大力倡導公私部門協力，並允許公私部門間的競爭（劉毓玲，民82）。整個公私部門關係的轉變，由陌生到競爭合作，這些作法乃至於政府主動尋求私部門的協力參與；其主要核心觀念是改造政府具有效率和品質的政府，公部門不再只強調公平性的原則，同時要提高公共服務的水準，以因應民眾需求。「公私部門的協力關係（或稱合夥關係）」（public-private partnership）已成為目前國家建設公共政策上非常重要的一種理念。 　　筆者認為公私部門協力關係是：公私部門以平等互惠、共同參與、責任分擔的原則，建立一個以公民參與為基礎，以公共責任為核心，以公共利益為目的，結合公部門、私部門、第三部門及公民，並以建立公私協力機制為連結的公共服務責任網（network of responsibility），它具有下列內涵:（1）公私部門協力是公私部門組織文化性和結構性的改變；（2）公私部門協力兼顧效率與公共性；（3）公私部門協力是一種組織的關係或網絡。 　　因此，在本文中，首先探討公私部門關係，包括民營化方向及第三部門的參與，進而探討公私部門合作的新方向—公私部門協力關係。繼而論及公私部門協力理論，探討理論基礎—公民參與理論及新政府運動，再者論及公私部門協力運用策略、限制與解決之道。並以台北市社區大學的個案研究，探討公私部門在此一公共政策的合作關係。最後，希望作一理論與個案之整合，由公共利益與公共性的維護、公共責任的落實、公私協力機制的法制化探討公私部門協力關係的必要發展--公私協力機制的發展。此些觀念之內涵如下： 一、公共利益與公共性的維護 　　學者C.Ventriss(1991：12)曾言：「行政是政府的重心，而公共才是國家的核心」，一語點出「公共性」對於一個國家或政府的重要性，以及公共行政的核心價值所在。「公共性」積極意義的彰顯，也就是指人類共同事務必須經由社群成員的主動參與，以及成員間的相互溝通、意見表達，以形成共識，而這樣的共識及其付諸實踐的一切行動將有助於群體公益以及共同美善(common good)。 社區大學的成立，結合了政府部門、民間部門及社區團體及社區居民的共同參與而成立，其上課方式亦採取讓公民參與、公民自主的方式，充分展現了公共性的價值。 二、公共責任的落實 　　公私部門協力關係責任的承擔是由協力雙方共同承擔，這可由兩個面向探討之，一為政策議程設定，一為行政官僚組織人員。在議程的設定方面，有那些議題能被列入議程中討論，乃至於形成政策？以「參與式民主」（participatory democracy）的觀點而言，參與式民主意指（1）使政府行政人員的選拔過程更受一般平民的影響，此涉及政黨的民主化；（2）把許多與國家大致上無關的決策由地方政府或社會人民集會成立，以制衡中央過分集中的權力及行政官僚的勢力；（3）私人性組織的「民主化」等政策。參與式民主的觀點啟發了日後公共事務管理的新思維，如社區自覺與自治、公眾參與，以至於公私部門協力關係。因此，依據民主的意涵，議程設定的應然決策者應為人民，實現主權在民的理念。而公私部門協力關係亦可視為一種人民的參與和監督方式，藉由此種機制彌補議程設定的障礙，讓有些具有重要性、迫切性的議題或弱勢團體的需求，可以透過公私部門協力關係而予以處理。 　　在行政官僚組織探討上，一個健全的民主行政發展應考量以下幾個原則：（1）公共取向；（2）深思熟慮的抉擇；（3）公正正直的行為；（4）程序的尊重；（5）程序的尊重。 三、公私協力機制的法制化 　　公私部門協力關係的建立，並不意味協力雙方可以恣意作為而不受約束。公私部門協力關係不限於傳統的政治監督方式，可由具公信力的團體組織負責監督或用「誘因監督」方式由協力雙方根據預算和利益分配進行良性互動監督，即創造出一「公私協力機制」，以利永續經營發展。 　　就社區大學的未來發展而言，除須克服法令的限制外，另外尚須配合下列措施，以兼顧公平、正義與效率： 一、訂定類似委託民間辦理實施要點，逐步引進營利部門共同推動公共政策，以保障弱勢群體的權益，使其不致成為民營化的犧牲者。 二、積極輔導民間非營利部門健全發展，使服務供給市場能充分發展，增加民眾的選擇性，真正達到競爭、效率、高品質的目標，如此才能真正達到公私協力多元的供給體系目標。 　　台北市文山區社區大學的成立代表了兩層意義：一是它代表著將知識的喜悅帶出學術殿堂，培養公民大眾的批判理性，健全公共理性的論述機制，提昇競爭力及生活素質，並期許為社會重建的起點，建立終身學習社會的使命。二是文山區社區大學的設置係由民間社團、社區組織、台北市政府共同協力達成的，這不但突破現今教育部設置「大學」的法令限制，更是公部門與私部門協力完成的一個範例，它的成功與否將成為公私部門協力的研究一項重要指標。 目錄 第一章 緒論……..…..……………………………………………..1 第一節 研究動機與目的…………………………………………..1 第二節 研究途徑、方法與限制…………………………………..5 第三節 文獻檢視……………………………………………..……8 第四節 研究架構與流程………………………………………….20 第二章 公私部門關係之分析……..………………………….……27 第一節 公私部門關係探討….……………………………………27 第二節 公共事務民營化探討……………………………….……34 第三節 非營利組織與政府的互動關係………………………….37 第四節 公私部門合作的新方向………………………………….39 第三章 公私部門協力理論與策略分析..……………………….…45 第一節 公私部門協力理論……………………………………….45 第二節 公私部門協力策略……………………………………….51 第三節 公私部門協力理論限制與解決之道…………………….58 第四章 公私部門協力關係應用於台北社區大學之分析..……….70 第一節 台北市社區大學方案規劃過程………………………….70 第二節 台北市社區大學方案法制化問題……………………….76 第三節 台北市社區大學方案執行………………………..…...80 第四節 台北市社區大學方案評估…………..……………..….86 第五章 公私協力機制的建立…………………………………….…92 第一節 公共利益與公共性的維護……………………………...92 第二節 公共責任的落實………………………………………...97 第三節 公私協力機制的法制化……………………………....102 第六章 結論…………………………………………………………104 第一節 研究發現..……………………………………………..104 第二節 研究建議..……………………………………………..110 參考書目………………..….………………………………………117 附錄一 訪談紀錄 附錄二 台北市政府試辦社區大學實施要點 附錄三 台北市政府試辦社區大學委託大專院校或民間團體經營契約範本

This thesis examines the validity of exclusionary clauses in medical contracts, more especially, hospital contracts in which the healthcare provider exonerates itself against edictal liability arising from the negligent conduct of its staff, resulting in the patient suffering damages. In assessing whether these types of clauses should be outlawed by our courts, this thesis attempts to synthesize six major traditional areas of law, namely, the law of delict, the law of contract, medical law and ethics, international and foreign law, statutory law and constitutional law into a legal conceptual framework relating specifically to exclusionary clauses in medical contracts in South Africa. This thesis highlights systemic inconsistencies with regard to the central issue, namely, whether these types of clauses are valid or not, especially, given the fact that the practice of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts has hitherto traditionally been assessed within the framework of the law of contract. The alignment of the various pre-existing areas of statutory and common law with the Constitution highlights that an inter-disciplinary and purposive approach under the value-driven Constitution, brings about a less fragmented picture in assessing the validity of these types of clauses. This approach accords with the new solicitude of the executive, the judiciary, the legislature and academia to transform the South African legal system not only in terms of procedural law but also substantive law. This has resulted in the alignment with constitutional principles and the underlying values to test the validity of these types of clauses, alternatively, contracts. Whereas pre-constitutionally the assessment of disclaimers in hospital contracts was done against the stratum of antiquated principles, namely, freedom of contract and the sanctity of contract, ignoring values such as reasonableness, fairness and conscionability, post-constitutionally, because the values that underlie the Bill of Rights and which affects all spheres of law, including the law of contract, concepts such as fairness, equity, reasonableness should weigh heavily with the decision-maker. In this regard, broader medico-legal considerations, normative medical ethics and the common law principles of good faith, fairness and reasonableness play a fundamental role in the assessment of contractual provisions, including the practice of disclaimers or exclusionary clauses in hospital contracts. This thesis critically examines how these types of clauses or contracts ought to be adjudicated eventually against the background of such alignment. It concludes that the entering into a hospital contract, in which the patient exonerates a hospital and its staff from liability flowing from the hospital or its staff's negligence causing damages to the patient, would be inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid. In the old order in which traditional divisions of law have been encouraged, a fragmented approach resulted in legal in congruencies which, in turn, created turbulence and a lot of uncertainty. This approach is apposite to that which the new constitutionally based legal system, aims to achieve. The rights in the Bill of Rights which are interconnected and which influences all spheres of law, including contract law, offers a fairer basis upon which, the validity of contracts, or contractual provisions, can be measured than, the pure contract approach. In this regard, although contracts or contractual provisions in the past may have been unfair and unreasonable, the courts, however, refused to strike them down purely on this basis. The law of contract, as a legal vehicle for adjudicating the validity of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts, is therefore not ideal. This is primarily due to the antiquated approach the South African courts have always taken in this area of law. The law of delict, statutory law and medical law, standing alone, also does not provide a satisfactory answer. What is needed is an integrated approach in which the traditional areas of law are united and wherein constitutional principles and values, give much guidance and direction. Alternatively, should the unification of the traditional areas of law not be possible in bringing about fair and equitable results, the introduction of legislative measures may very well be indicated. / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Public Law / unrestricted

由於不同的行業，其工作內涵差別極大，而不同的工作，其特性更是相去甚遠，自然，對於工作所需之人員，其應具備之資格條件也就大不相同，例如社會各種職場之報考者常常面臨著體格檢查限制的壓力，日常的生活、人際交往、求學、就業、失業、等等問題無時無刻不在困擾著他們，甚至在人生的每一個階段，他們都必須在縫隙中尋求生存的空間。 有些人事用人機關認為體格檢查限制並非是一種歧視行為，而是基於公共利益的需要而給予的合理的差別待遇，所謂「歧視」一詞具有多義性，在此應從侵害「國民就業機會平等」理解之。針對體格檢查限制之問題，本文擬先就體格檢查之意涵予以說明，並舉例說明公務人員考試之體格檢查限制，例如對B型肝炎帶原者限制其報考各類國家考試，這樣一個涉及健康標準的問題，其所設限之體檢標準是否合理？其唯一標準是「醫學標準」，如果科學證明B型肝炎帶原者對他人不構成傳染或雖有傳染性但並不嚴重且可以採取措施加以預防，則上開有關體檢之資格限制標準，構成對B型肝炎帶原者平等競爭公職權利的侵犯，是違憲的，因大量的醫學證明，B型肝炎帶原者並不會對公眾的健康構成威脅。 本文係以有關人民參加需經國家考試公務人員就業體格檢查限制所涉及之基本權利之保障與限制（干預）為研究之課題，人民就業體格檢查是否可以予以差別待遇？而該差別待遇是否合理？合乎比例原則？手段與目的之間如不符比例原則，恐有違憲之虞，故國家於設定體格檢查限制條件時，必須有合理的限制標準，並能依據合理的判斷基準予以救濟，避免侵害人民之權利，且立法、司法及行政各部門，更應負起積極的責任，研擬相關配套措施，以保障人民憲法上的基本權利，全文共分6章：第一章緒論，旨在說明本文之研究動機並界定研究範圍，同時提出本文之研究目的和方法。第二章體格檢查之基本概念，先敘明體格檢查之意涵，包括體格檢查之概念、目的（功能）、意義及特點（執行機構），再加以整理公務人員體格檢查標準之法規依據。第三至第五章構成本文之本論。旨在依序探討公務人員就業體格檢查限制所涉之基本權利保障與限制（干預），並檢討相關行政救濟案例，各章內容以我國憲法所保障之就業基本權利探討為主，並以憲法對於限制人權之相關原則的討論為輔。第六章結論，則在將前述各章之研究結果作綜合性的簡要陳述，並嘗試提出檢討及建議作為本論文之歸結。 / Each career has unique requirements for employees due to the different entity of the career. Therefore the job applicants have to face the pressure of physical examination during application to a new job frequently. Some human resource organizations consider “the abridgement of physical examination” as a rational differential treatment based on the public interests, rather than a discriminative behavior. As the term “discrimination” has versatile meanings, it will be interpreted as an interference of “the equal opportunity for civil employment” in this thesis. In this article, the meaning of the abridgement of physical examination on employment will be illustrated, followed by an example from the abridgement of the physical examination on professional examination. For example, it should be scrutinized whether it is appropriate to abridge a hepatitis B carrier of attending the civil examination, which is concerned from a view of health judged by the medical standard. Some researchers argued that the scientific evidences showed hepatitis B will not be transmitted via carriers, or even can be transmitted but not severely and can be prevented. Then standards of the physical examination on employment would invade the right of equal competition for civil service. Those would be unconstitutional because hepatitis B carriers would not make any threat to public health, which were proved through lots of medical evidences. The main purpose of this thesis concentrated on the protection and interference of basic rights involved in the abridgement of physical examination on civil service. The study will scrutinize the appropriateness, rationality, equality of discriminative treatment in the physical examination on civil service. If the goal and the means of public deeds are not proportional, it would be unconstitutional. To set up the conditions for the abridgement of physical examination, the government should have reasonable standards of restriction and also reasonable judgment criteria of relief for the abridgement of physical examination to avoid invading civil rights. The organization of legislation, justice and administration should take the responsibility of drafting relevant integrated measures to guard the civil privilege. The thesis consists of six chapters. Chapter one (prolegomenon) includes the motive, scope, goal and methods of this study. Chapter two (introduction) elucidates the concept, goal (function), construction and characteristics (an executive body) of the physical examination, and regulations related to standards for the physical examination on the civil service. Chapter three to five (main body) center on the protection and abridgement (interference) of basic rights and the review of administrative relief cases involved in the physical examination of employment. We will study the protection of right of work in our constitution mainly, accompanied by discussion of the relative principles of interference of human rights as well. Chapter six (conclusion) summarizes the research results in previous chapters and make conclusions and suggestions.

I denna uppsats studeras hur avvägningarna mellan allmänna och enskilda intressen hanteras avde dömande organen och hur de olika sakägarna resonerar utifrån de olika intressena. Arbetet har genomförts som en fallstudie där fyra olika byggprojekt studerats. Gemensamt för alla är att de ligger i Stockholms innerstad och har mött motstånd i form av överklaganden. Det finns lite olika definitioner för vad allmänintresset är, somliga menar att allmänintresset är ensammanslagning av flera enskilda intressen medan andra definierar att det bestäms av folkets valda representanter. Det ideologiska tillvägagångsättet som diskuteras är utilitarism, enhetligt, rättighetsbaserad ochdialogbaserad. För att tolka domstolarna domslut används fjäder- och balansvågsmodellen där fjädervågsmodellen symboliserar gränsen för vad man som sakägare är skyldig att tåla. Balansvågsmodellen symboliserar det beslut som tas baserat på de sammanvägda för- och nackdelarna. Det första fallet är kvarteret Plankan 24 där Svenska Bostäder vill bygga nya bostäder i den oexploaterade innergården, planen har mötts av kritik från de boende som menar att luftkvaliteten, bullernivåerna, ljusinsläpp, rekreationsytor, barnens miljö och kulturmiljön avsevärt kommer att försämras. Mark och miljööverdomstolen anser att de skäl som de klagande åberopat inte är tillräckliga för att planen inte ska genomföras. Fall nummer två handlar om Orgelpipan 6, en hotellbyggnadskomplex och en av citybanans uppgångar mittemot centralstationen. De klagande menar bland annat att ett nytt hotell kommer att skapa obalans på en redan obalanserad marknad, att ljusförutsättningarna kommer att försämras och att byggnaden kommer att för skada Stockholm. Länsstyrelsen anser inte att deklagomål som kommit in är tillräckliga för att planen inte ska vinna laga kraft. Det tredje fallet handlar om Mårtensdal 6, ett kontorskomplex som ska bli 125 meter högt. De klagande är befintliga hyresgäster som anser att deras verksamhet inte ska behöva flytta och Fortum Värme AB som anser att höjden på byggnaden riskerar att inskränka deras verksamhet pga. att den är högre än deras egen skorsten. Mark- och miljööverdomstolen beslutar att Fortums överklagande bör accepteras och upphäver därför planen pga. av allmänintresset. Det sista fallet är byggandet av Nobel Center på Blasieholmen bakom Nationalmuseum. De klagande är gemensamt emot planen då det kommer påverka riksintresset och kulturmiljön. I Mark- och miljödomstolens domslut går man på de klagandes linje och upphäver planen för att planen innebär påtaglig skada på kulturmiljön och riksintresset. Den ideologi som tycktes vara den som tillämpades mest var en blandning mellan utilitarismenoch enhetliga. Den rättighetsbaserad ideologin användes inte alls och den dialogbaserade är något som används tidigare i planprocessen. Något entydigt samband i domstolarnasbedömningar har dock inte kunnat konstaterats, det kan bero på att varje fall är unikt och har dess egna förutsättningar. Kommunen och övriga sakägare resonerar på olika sätt när det kommer till avvägningar mellan allmänna och enskilda intressen. Generellt gör kommunen avvägningar genom ett utilitaristiskt och enhetligt tillvägagångsätt medan sakägarna använder olika tillvägagångssätt beroende påom de representerar ett företag, en förening eller är en privatperson. / This paper examines how the balances between public and private interests are handled by the appeals court and how the different stakeholder’s reason based on the different interests. The work has been carried out as a case study in which four different construction projects were studied. Common to all is that they are in Stockholm's inner city and have met with resistance in the form of appeals. There are slightly different definitions for what the public interest is,some believe that the public interest is a combination of several individual interests, while others define that it is decided by the elected representatives of the people. The ideological approach under discussion is utilitarianism, unitary, rights-based and dialogical. To interpret the court's verdict, the dynanometer and beam scale model is used wherethe dynamometer model symbolizes the boundary of what you as a stakeholder are obliged toendure. The beam scale model symbolizes the decision that is made based on the weighted pros and cons. The first case is Kv. Plankan 24, where Svenska Bostäder wants to build new housing in the undeveloped courtyard, the plan has been met by criticism from the residents who believe that the air quality, noise levels, day light, recreation areas, children's environment and the cultural environment will deteriorate significantly. The Land and environmental court consider that the reasons cited by the complainants are not sufficient for the plan not to be implemented. Case number two is about Kv. Orgelpipan 6, a hotel building complex and one of the new entrances for the new commuter track, Citybanan. The complainants believe, among otherthings, that a new hotel will create imbalance in an already unbalanced market, that the lighting conditions will deteriorate and that the building will harm the character of Stockholm. The County Administrative Board does not consider that the complaints received are sufficient for the plan not to get implemented. The third case is about Mårtensdal 6, an office complex that will be 125 meters high. The complainants are existing tenants who feel that their business should not need to relocate and Fortum Värme AB who believes that the height of the building risks reducing their business because it is higher than their own chimney. The Land and environmental court decide that Fortum's appeal should be accepted because the public interest of Fortums appeal is greater than the office building to be higher than the chimney. The last case is the construction of the Nobel Center at Blasieholmen behind the NationalMuseum. The complainants jointly oppose the plan as it will affect the national interest and the historical culture environment. The Land and Environmental Court cancels the plan because it involves significant damage to the historical cultural environment and the national interest. The ideology that seemed to be the one most applied for the court was a mix between utilitarianism and unitary. The rights-based ideology was not used at all and the dialogue-based is something that is used earlier in the planning process. However, no clear connection in the judgments of the courts has been found, it may be because each case is unique and has its ownconditions. The municipality and the other stakeholders reasoning in different ways when it comes to the delimitation of public and private interests. In general, the municipality balances through autilitarian and uniform approach, while the business owners use different approaches depending on whether they represent a company, an association, or a private person.