Consulting with the public on planning issues has become an endeavour formalized throughout Western democracies over the past half-century. However, there remains a dichotomy between the legislative minimums for this part of the planning process and the extraordinary efforts of some municipalities. Inefficiencies emerge as attempts are made by many municipalities to implement the contributions received, exposing the potentially different objectives held by each of the major consultation players. Academics suggest that the rationale for consultation appears to have advanced to the point where its value is beyond question, but that the means and frequency for its conduct are not. The literature on the subject is further split between that which focuses on the process of consultation and that which centres on its outcomes. Correspondingly, the fairness of consultation exercises can be viewed from the procedural and distributive points of view. To date, academic study in this field has largely been conducted along qualitative lines. Using a combination of questionnaires, interviews and a focus group to triangulate data received from the major players, an answer was sought to the hypothesis that consultation players possess distinct objectives for this planning exercise. The results indicated that planners and the public do subscribe to separate views for the purpose of consultation, which bias their paradigms of the other parties. Isolating other factors regarding each of these cohort groups further suggested that time, geography, and education often limit the participation of citizens, while planners feel constrained by time, apathy among participants, the political processes and certain fiscal realities. Therefore, changes to planning legislation are recommended that would indirectly reduce the burden for each of the major players by conducting anticipatory consultation. Such measures would reverse the onus of participating while requiring a lesser investment of staff and resources from municipalities. Future research would test the validity of this approach and engage political figures as the final cohort in the triangle of planning participation.

Consulting with the public on planning issues has become an endeavour formalized throughout Western democracies over the past half-century. However, there remains a dichotomy between the legislative minimums for this part of the planning process and the extraordinary efforts of some municipalities. Inefficiencies emerge as attempts are made by many municipalities to implement the contributions received, exposing the potentially different objectives held by each of the major consultation players. Academics suggest that the rationale for consultation appears to have advanced to the point where its value is beyond question, but that the means and frequency for its conduct are not. The literature on the subject is further split between that which focuses on the process of consultation and that which centres on its outcomes. Correspondingly, the fairness of consultation exercises can be viewed from the procedural and distributive points of view. To date, academic study in this field has largely been conducted along qualitative lines. Using a combination of questionnaires, interviews and a focus group to triangulate data received from the major players, an answer was sought to the hypothesis that consultation players possess distinct objectives for this planning exercise. The results indicated that planners and the public do subscribe to separate views for the purpose of consultation, which bias their paradigms of the other parties. Isolating other factors regarding each of these cohort groups further suggested that time, geography, and education often limit the participation of citizens, while planners feel constrained by time, apathy among participants, the political processes and certain fiscal realities. Therefore, changes to planning legislation are recommended that would indirectly reduce the burden for each of the major players by conducting anticipatory consultation. Such measures would reverse the onus of participating while requiring a lesser investment of staff and resources from municipalities. Future research would test the validity of this approach and engage political figures as the final cohort in the triangle of planning participation.

Este trabalho tem como objeto de pesquisa o processo de consulta pública online para elaboração do Marco Civil da Internet, nova lei que dispõe sobre os direitos dos usuários de Internet no Brasil. Ele busca responder às seguintes perguntas: (i) como foi idealizado processo de consulta pública online do Marco Civil da Internet? (ii) Como a consulta foi gerenciada e executada? (iii) Quais foram os resultados da consulta em termos de soluções jurídicas aos conflitos políticos do setor da Internet? A proposta é realizar uma descrição desta experiência de participação social pela Internet a partir de um mapeamento das contribuições dos cidadãos e instituições, de informações em fontes variadas (imprensa especializada ou não e outros trabalhos acadêmicos) e do confronto deste levantamento com entrevistas dadas pelos gestores do projeto sobre seu planejamento e execução. A pesquisa trabalhou com a hipótese de que a consulta pública online que elaborou o Marco Civil da Internet se colocou como alternativa a um debate instaurado dentro do Congresso Nacional e bloqueado por propostas de lei de enfoque penal. O resultado da pesquisa sugere a confirmação dessa hipótese, bem como a relevância da experiência analisada para o sucesso uma estratégia política de reversão dessa agenda legislativa anterior. / Between 2009 and 2011 the Office of Legislative Affairs of the Ministry of Justice (SAL/MJ), in partnership with the Center for Technology and Society at Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV-CTS), organized a virtual platform to collect peoples comments and insights for a new bill that promises to establish a regulatory framework for the Internet: the Marco Civil da Internet. This work aims to describe this experience, addressing the following issues: (i) how the process was created; (ii) how it was managed and operationalized; and (iii) which outputs it produced in terms of legal solutions solving Internet regulation dilemmas. The research tested the hypothesis that the public consultation process revealed a turning point of the Brazilian Internet regulation debate, which was dominated by criminal-related approaches. The study suggests that the hypothesis was correct and that the analyzed experience was relevant in a reexamination of that previous political agenda.

I Malmö stads översiktsplan fastslås en ambition om att i högre grad involvera medborgare i planeringen för att göra staden mer jämlik och socialt hållbar, samtidigt som planeringen kan bli mer effektiv när planer kan förankras genom att involvera medborgare i ett tidigt skede. Men för att involvera medborgare i planeringen, i ett tidigt stadie, krävs det att det görs ansatser som går utöver de lagliga krav som Plan- och Bygglagen ställer på planförfarandet om medborgerligt demokratiskt inflytande. Denna ansats benämner Malmö stad som fördjupad delaktighet. Men vad som ingår i de ansatser som går utöver lagens krav och möjligheterna för hur medborgare kan påverka planeringen, kan variera från en planprocess till en annan. Hur Malmö stad arbetar med att involvera medborgare med metoder som går utöver lagens krav ämnar denna studie studera. Detta har undersökts med en fallstudie som har studerat ett aktivt planeringsprojekt i Bunkeflostrand i Malmö. Fallstudien har kompletterats med en dokumentstudie samt en intervju som har genomförs med en nyckelaktör i planeringsprojektet, med ansvar för medborgardialog. Denna inhämtade information har sedan analyserats med hjälp av teorier som har sin grund i deliberativ demokratiteori, medborgarmakt, demokratiska innovationer och kommunikativ planeringsteori. Genom denna analys har vi identifierat att medborgare ges en större möjlighet att delta i planprocessen, men att detta inte översätts till att medborgare ges en medbestämmanderätt. Hur medborgares åsikter överförs till planarbetet försvåras av planutformningens teknokratiska natur, vilket innebär att det medborgerliga inflytandet kräver stöd från andra aktörer för att kunna förverkligas. / Malmö municipality’s general plan states an ambition to involve citizens, to a higher degree, in city planning to make the city more equitable and socially sustainable. By involving citizens in planning, it can become more effective when plans are thoroughly anchored with citizens at an early stage. But in order to involve citizens at an early stage in planning, it is necessary for city planning to make efforts that go beyond the legal requirements that Plan- och Bygglagen imposes on the planning procedure for civic democratic influence. This effort is defined in Malmö Municipality’s’ general plan as deepened participation. But what is included in the efforts that go beyond the requirements of the law and the possibilities for how citizens can influence planning can vary from one planning process to another. The purpose of this study is to understand how Malmö Municipality works to involve citizens with methods that go beyond the requirements of the law. This has been investigated with a case study that has examined an active planning project in Bunkeflostrand in Malmö Municipality. The case study has been supplemented by a document study as well as an interview conducted with a key employee in the planning project, responsible for citizen dialogue. This information has then been analyzed with the help of theories based on deliberative democracy theory, citizen power, democratic innovations, and communicative planning theory. Through this analysis, we have identified that citizens are given a greater opportunity to participate in the planning process, but that this is not translated into giving citizens a right of co-decision. How citizens' opinions are transferred to planning work is complicated by the technocratic nature of plan making, which means that civic influence requires support from other stakeholders to be realized.

Depuis une trentaine d’années, les citoyens des démocraties libérales boudent les isoloirs, souvent dépités par le manque d’impact de leur geste sur leur environnement (Sandel, 2012; Putnam, 2000). Plutôt que d’abandonner la sphère publique, plusieurs d’entre eux ont choisi de l’investir autrement. C’est ainsi que le monde occidental a connu un essor certain de la participation publique. Contrairement au vote, le citoyen est ici invité à prendre la parole, mais aussi à écouter les opinions des autres participants. Il se retrouve donc investi d’un rôle bien plus complexe sans être nécessairement doté des outils lui permettant d’accomplir la mission. Cette étude se penche sur le processus de l’écoute en consultation publique et vise à en déplier les mécanismes. Il s’agit d’observer comment s’exprime l’écoute en consultation publique, en dressant une typologie des marqueurs d’écoute et des sollicitations à l’écoute pour en étudier le fonctionnement. L’étude révèle qu’une écoute attentive peut se transformer en une écoute plus engagée quand une négociation mesurée de l’écoute prend place. Pour cela, chacun des acteurs doit être conscient de lui-même mais aussi de l’autre, du rôle de l’autre et du but final de la consultation. L’écoute engagée privilégie le partage d’autorité et auteurité nécessaire à la co-construction d’un discours entre tous les acteurs, une écoute qui se matérialise par le rapport que la commission remet aux preneurs de décision. La légitimité de ce rapport dépend du travail en amont entre les acteurs et, entre autres, de leur capacité à s’écouter, au delà de la dimension discursive. Le type d’écoute mis en œuvre contribue à inférer une légitimité à la consultation publique. / For the past thirty years or so, many citizens of liberal democracies have shunned their polling booths, often frustrated by the lack of impact their votes are having on the consequent political environment (Sandel, 2012; Putnam, 2000). Rather than abandoning the public sphere altogether, some are choosing different mechanisms to be heard and to influence outcomes. This is why the Western world is experiencing a rise of more direct citizen participation in public policy discussions. Unlike voting, we are now not only able to express and disseminate our opinions and points of view but we can also hear and consider the views of others. But even while citizens find themselves invested with more opportunity to engage in public conversation, they are still lacking the tools to effective accomplish their objective. This study focuses on “listening” in the public consultation process and seeks to understand its mechanisms. We observe how listening is manifested in public consultations by drawing up a typology of signs indicating listening, and sollicitations to listen and then studying its functioning. The study reveals that attentive listening can turn into committed listening as listening priorities are negociated and established. For this to work, each participant must be aware of the input of the other and be constantly aware of final goal of the consultation in question. Committed listening favors sharing authority and authorship among stakeholders. The final report submitted to elected decision makers reflects the discourses but also the listening capacity expressed during the sessions. The legitimacy of this report depends on preparatory work between actors and, among other things, their willingness to listen to each other as well as speak. The quality of the participants’ listening skills has an impact on the public consultation’s legitimacy.

Visualisation of proposed plans and designs can be done with a number of differenttechniques within the field of architecture and urban planning. But which visualisationtechnique is best suited when presenting a design proposal at a public consultation? Is therea breaking point where the user can form a general understanding of the proposed designdepending on the degree of fidelity? To seek answers to these questions a qualitative studywas conducted where five different visualisation techniques were tested on ten users toassess their understanding of a proposed design. Our findings show that there is not asingle best visualisation technique for public consultation. Based on our results thepreferred alternative would be a combination of several techniques. We could also see thatthe general understanding of a space increased until a certain degree, and after that adeeper more detail oriented understanding was achieved.

Em 2011, a Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária inseriu como eixo estratégico de sua gestão o envolvimento com as macro políticas sociais brasileiras, especialmente as relacionadas ao desenvolvimento social, com foco na erradicação da extrema pobreza e no avanço da formalização das atividades econômicas relacionadas a produtos e serviços sujeitos à vigilância sanitária. Em 2013 a Agencia publicou uma regulação específica para o microempreendedor individual, para o empreendimento familiar rural e para o empreendimento econômico solidário (RDC n° 49) intitulada de \"Inclusão produtiva com segurança sanitária\". A construção da norma contou com a participação da sociedade, por meio da consulta pública n°37. Objetivos: Analisar criticamente a percepção e as expectativas dos atores sociais participantes da consulta sobre os impactos esperados acerca da RDC e discutir as possíveis convergências dessas expectativas com as ações propostas no I Plano Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (2012/2015). Metodologia: Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo que utilizou os métodos de análise documental e análise de conteúdo temática para analisar os dados secundários da consulta pública °37. Resultados: A partir da descrição das categorias identificadas, os atores sociais foram divididos entre \"grupo a favor\" e \"grupo contrário\", explicitando o caráter antagônico das expectativas dos participantes acerca dos impactos da norma. Além disso, a analise mostrou que existem vários pontos de convergência entre os impactos esperados pelos participantes e as ações propostas no I Plano de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (2012-2015). Conclusão: O tema \"Inclusão produtiva com Segurança Sanitária\" provocou uma discussão rica e complexa mostrando que é necessário haver um equilíbrio para que as normas sanitárias sejam coerentes com as especificidades existentes na pequena produção, garantindo, contudo, a segurança sanitária dos alimentos. / In 2011, the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency inserted as a strategic axis of its management the involvement with macro social policies in Brazil, especially those related with social development, focusing on eradication of extreme poverty and on advancing formalization for economic activities related to products and services subject to health surveillance. In 2013 the Agency published a specific regulation for individual microentrepreneur, family farmer and solidarity economic enterprise (RDC n°49) entitled \"Productive Inclusion with Health Security\". The construction of the standard was attended by civil society, through the public consultation n° 37. Objectives: To critically analyze perception and expectations of social actors participants of the consultation on expected impacts of RDC and to discuss the possible convergences of these expectations with the actions proposed in the 1st National Plan for Food and Nutrition Security (2012/2015). Methodology: This is a qualitative study that used the methods of document analysis and the analysis of thematic content to analyze the secondary data of the public consultation n° 37. Results: From the description of categories identified, the social actors were divided between \"favor group\" and \"opposing group\", clarifying the antagonistic character of participants\' expectations about impacts of the norm. In addition, the analysis showed there are several points of convergence between the expected impacts of participants and actions proposed in the I Food and Nutrition Security Plan (2012-2015). Conclusion: The theme \"Productive Inclusion with Sanitary Safety\" has provoked a rich and complex discussion, showing that a balance needs to be struck in order to ensure that health standards are consistent with the specificities of small production, while guaranteeing food safety.

Xenotransplantation (XTP; animal-to-human transplantation) is a controversial technology of contemporary scientific, medical, ethical and social debate in Australia and internationally. The complexities of XTP encompass immunology, immunosuppression, physiology, technology (genetic engineering and cloning), microbiology, and animal/human relations. As a result of these controversies, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), Australia, formed the Xenotransplantation Working Party (XWP) in 2001. The XWP was designed to advise the NHMRC on XTP, if and how it should proceed in Australia, and to provide draft regulatory guidelines. During the period 2001-2004, the XWP produced three publicly available documents one of which, ‘Animal-to-Human Transplantation Research: A Guide for the Community’ (2003), was specifically designed to introduce the general public to the major issues and background of XTP. This thesis examines XTP in Australia as guided and influenced by this community document. Explicitly, drawing upon actor (actant)- network theory, I will reveal the Australian XTP network and explore, describe and explain XTP problematisations and network negotiations by the enrolled actants on two key concepts and obligatory passage points - animals and risk. These actants include those providing regulatory advice (members of the XWP and the associated Animal Issues Subcommittee), those developing and/or critiquing XTP (official science and scientists), and those targeted by the technology (people on dialysis, with Type-1 diabetes, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, pre-or post-human-tohuman transplantation, and their partner/spouse). The stories are gathered through focus groups, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. They reveal ambiguous and sometimes contradictory stories about animals and risk, which influence and impact the problematisations of XTP and its networks. Therefore, XTP mobilises tension; facilitating both support and apprehension of the XTP network and its construction by both the sciences and the publics.

Em 2011, a Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária inseriu como eixo estratégico de sua gestão o envolvimento com as macro políticas sociais brasileiras, especialmente as relacionadas ao desenvolvimento social, com foco na erradicação da extrema pobreza e no avanço da formalização das atividades econômicas relacionadas a produtos e serviços sujeitos à vigilância sanitária. Em 2013 a Agencia publicou uma regulação específica para o microempreendedor individual, para o empreendimento familiar rural e para o empreendimento econômico solidário (RDC n° 49) intitulada de \"Inclusão produtiva com segurança sanitária\". A construção da norma contou com a participação da sociedade, por meio da consulta pública n°37. Objetivos: Analisar criticamente a percepção e as expectativas dos atores sociais participantes da consulta sobre os impactos esperados acerca da RDC e discutir as possíveis convergências dessas expectativas com as ações propostas no I Plano Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (2012/2015). Metodologia: Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo que utilizou os métodos de análise documental e análise de conteúdo temática para analisar os dados secundários da consulta pública °37. Resultados: A partir da descrição das categorias identificadas, os atores sociais foram divididos entre \"grupo a favor\" e \"grupo contrário\", explicitando o caráter antagônico das expectativas dos participantes acerca dos impactos da norma. Além disso, a analise mostrou que existem vários pontos de convergência entre os impactos esperados pelos participantes e as ações propostas no I Plano de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (2012-2015). Conclusão: O tema \"Inclusão produtiva com Segurança Sanitária\" provocou uma discussão rica e complexa mostrando que é necessário haver um equilíbrio para que as normas sanitárias sejam coerentes com as especificidades existentes na pequena produção, garantindo, contudo, a segurança sanitária dos alimentos. / In 2011, the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency inserted as a strategic axis of its management the involvement with macro social policies in Brazil, especially those related with social development, focusing on eradication of extreme poverty and on advancing formalization for economic activities related to products and services subject to health surveillance. In 2013 the Agency published a specific regulation for individual microentrepreneur, family farmer and solidarity economic enterprise (RDC n°49) entitled \"Productive Inclusion with Health Security\". The construction of the standard was attended by civil society, through the public consultation n° 37. Objectives: To critically analyze perception and expectations of social actors participants of the consultation on expected impacts of RDC and to discuss the possible convergences of these expectations with the actions proposed in the 1st National Plan for Food and Nutrition Security (2012/2015). Methodology: This is a qualitative study that used the methods of document analysis and the analysis of thematic content to analyze the secondary data of the public consultation n° 37. Results: From the description of categories identified, the social actors were divided between \"favor group\" and \"opposing group\", clarifying the antagonistic character of participants\' expectations about impacts of the norm. In addition, the analysis showed there are several points of convergence between the expected impacts of participants and actions proposed in the I Food and Nutrition Security Plan (2012-2015). Conclusion: The theme \"Productive Inclusion with Sanitary Safety\" has provoked a rich and complex discussion, showing that a balance needs to be struck in order to ensure that health standards are consistent with the specificities of small production, while guaranteeing food safety.

Många av Sveriges kommuner har idag svårt att få deltagare till medborgardialoger som angår nya planprojekt. Det är av stor vikt att dialogerna mellan kommuner och medborgare fungerar på ett bra sätt eftersom en bristfällig dialog kan leda till svårigheter i demokratin. För att kunna stärka demokratin och locka fler medborgare till dialogerna, framförallt yngre, finns olika verktyg som kommuner kan använda för att att illustrera de olika planförslagen. I denna studie undersöks frågor om virtuell verklighetsteknik (VR) är ett verktyg som skulle kunna locka fler till medborgardialoger samt om VR ökar förståelsen för kommunens olika illustrationer. VR är en tredimensionell visualisering med speciella skärmar och rörelse utrustning. Virtuella verklighetsillustrationer presenteras med en huvudmonterad display där du blir placerad i en miljö och kan röra dig fritt. För att studera dessa frågor utfördes ett experiment där deltagarna fick titta på två områden från en illustrationsplan, 3D-visualisering, samt använda VR. Deltagarna fick på en enkät ringa in upp till två svar för hur de upplevde området. För att enkelt tolka resultatet i denna studie användes värderosor. Med hjälp av dessa framkom resultatet att VR förbättrar förståelsen för illustrationsplaner och 3D-visualiseringar. Experimentet gav även svar på att VR kan locka personer till att medverka i medborgardialoger. Studien visade att VR bör användas som ett komplement till kommunens illustrationer för att fler medborgare ska lockas till medborgardialoger. Genom att jämföra resultatet går det tydligt att se stora skillnader på hur personer uppfattar de olika illustrationsverktygen. Den ökade förståelsen ger möjlighet för fler att lämna synpunkter till planprojekt. / Many of Sweden's municipalities have a hard time attracting participants to public consultation events about new planning projects. Good communication between municipalities and citizens is vital because to the planning process and a well functioning democracy. In order to strengthen democracy and attract more citizens to planning consultations, especially younger people, municipalities can use a variety of different illustrations and presentation tools. This study examined whether virtual reality (VR) is a useful tool for attracting the public and if VR increases the publics understanding of planning proposals. In order to examine these questions an experiment was conducted where participants looked at two different areas on an illustration map using 3D-visualizations and VR. The participants then answered two questions about how they experienced the environment. A radar chart was used to to interpret the results. The results indicate that VR enhanced the understanding of Illustration maps and 3D-visualizations. The experiment also suggests that VR can attract more people to public consultations. The study also showed that VR could be used as a complement to conventional illustrations and to enhance the public´s understanding of and opportunities to contribute opinions about planning projects.