Under projektet ”Att brodera är ett verb –Betraktelser ur ett nålsöga” har jag använt applikationsbroderi som teknik för att transformera och bearbeta material från min omgivning. Jag har sorterat alla material efter färgcirkeln och skapat rutor som jag satt ihop till ett abstraherat lapptäcke. Arbetet har syftat till att undersöka processbaserat görande och jag har därför tagit hjälp av verben i konstnären Richard Serras ”Verb list”. Jag har satt upp fyra regler för mig själv att förhålla mig till under arbetets gång. Med reglerna har jag velat eliminera alla val och processer som inte handlar om själva görandet i sig. Lapptäcket har tagit sin slutliga form utifrån det ramverk som reglerna utgjort. Under min opponering diskuterade jag och opponenten Karin Lundgren-Tallinger främst hur jag har förhållit mig till mina regler under arbetets gång och hur de hade kunnat vara tydligare. Till Konstfacks Vårutställning hängde jag upp lapptäcket på en ställning av skrot i ett hörn och spred ut vissa rutor och andra obearbetade material så som skräp och garner i flera delar av rummet. Installationen av verket gjorde jag för att skapa en känsla av att arbetet med rutorna när som helst skulle kunna återupptas och görandet forsätta.

The diploma thesis entitled " The Issue of the Necessity of Social housing of the Prague 2 Municipal District" deals with the definitions, possibilities and principles of social housing in the Czech Republic. The theoretical part of the thesis describes the phenomenon of housing and housing policy in the conditions of the Czech Republic in connection with the current problems of housing affordability for socially needy citizens. He also mentions the possibilities of support in the field of housing and the overall setting of psychosocial networks. An equally important part of the diploma thesis is the mapping of the issue of social housing in the City of Prague 2 using competency documents. The practical part of the thesis maps the reflections of social workers of the Office of the City District of Prague 2 on the issue of social housing in the Czech Republic and in the City district of Prague 2, in order to change the limits of availability of social housing in the City district. PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP...

Useless things. I normally use trash things like pattern in painting still life. My father suffers from obsessive compulsive disorder – accumulation of things. In addition to painting, I also work with objects themselves. My interest also closely related to how the concepts of the subject, object and artifact are appliing in contemporary art. There are the tradition of imitation fact, principle of ready-made, the issue of technical reproducibility and virtual reality of things in history of art. As a central theme of my thesis, I selected the part of bodywork Tatra 613, which carries all the testimony about ,,useless and hopeless "situation in which it is located. It is also an object monumental and visually very aesthetic. Yet it is not my intention to settle for the principle of redy-made. Asked about artwork as intermediaries art and its seemingly useless producing and reproducing, I want to try to create another such usless situation. That's why I make a cardboard copy (1: 1) of this object. I also make video with motive 3D copy of the same object. I like to create some voltage between that useless object and valuable art practice. I think, it does not just mean such futility when these objects will be viewed as an art.

Cette thèse étudie la place des Galeries Lafayette dans l’échange marchand entre l’offre et la demande, au cœur du système de la mode. Elle réévalue le rôle de la distribution en général et du grand magasin en particulier comme intermédiaire créateur de valeur dans la relation entre le producteur et le consommateur. Au tournant du XXe siècle, sur le marché de la nouveauté et le segment émergent de la confection, l’enseigne répond aux attentes des consommateurs qui cherchent à se distinguer et se différencier en suivant de près les phénomènes de mode. Alors que les maisons de couture exercent un monopole sur les tendances, et limitent leur diffusion en France à un cercle de clientes privilégiées, les Galeries Lafayette ont fait « entrer la mode dans le grand magasin ». Elles fabriquent et vendent sous leur propre marque des modèles inspirés de ceux des couturiers. Cette appropriation efficace de la création construit la légitimité de l’entreprise en tant qu'intermédiaire ainsi que le pouvoir prescripteur de la marque sur le marché de la mode. Elle fait aussi des Galeries Lafayette un acteur de l’économie de la contrefaçon, au centre des enjeux de l’industrie du vêtement dans l’entre-deux-guerres. La thèse montre cependant qu’il existe plusieurs régimes de management de la création aux Galeries Lafayette. A travers l’analyse des investissements de l’entreprise dans les industries créatives et en particulier les cas des Parfums Chanel, des maisons Madeleine Vionnet et Jean Patou, elle se saisit pour la première fois de la question du financement de la couture et décloisonne l’étude des principaux acteurs du système de la mode. La période couverte, de la fin du XIXe aux années 1960, rend compte des transformations de l’industrie du vêtement, mais aussi de la plasticité de la stratégie et des structures de l’organisation. Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l’intégration verticale de la fabrication laisse progressivement la place à de nouvelles modalités de construction de l’offre. Dans un contexte marqué par la modernisation de la filière habillement, la « révolution » du prêt-à-porter, et l’émergence de nouvelles capitales de la mode, la centrale d’achats élargit ses approvisionnements aux marques et à l’international. La mise en place pionnière d’un bureau de style au début des années 1950 est centrale dans cette transformation pour faire le lien entre les créateurs, les industriels et les clients avec lesquelles les Galeries Lafayette sont en contact direct.Une partie des développements est consacrée aux associations professionnelles internationale qui sont le véhicule privilégié des transferts transatlantiques mais aussi de la construction d’un réseau européen favorisant la circulation des idées et des marchandises. Ces échanges montrent que la diffusion des méthodes nouvelles d’organisation, importées et adaptées des États-Unis, ne s’est pas limitée à l’industrie. Les efforts des Galeries Lafayette pour rationaliser l’organisation sont une nouvelle démonstration de la nécessité de réévaluer le rôle de la distribution et des intermédiaires du système de la mode longtemps négligés au profit de la figure du créateur. / This thesis researches the role of Galeries Lafayette at the heart of the French fashion system. It re-evaluates the role of retail and department stores as value-creating intermediaries in the relationship between producer and consumer. Additionally, the research highlights the innovative capacity of a family business and shows that the introduction of new organizational methods in retail trade along the 20th century, imported and adapted from the United States, was as much present as in manufacturing enterprises. In the first part, the thesis looks at the foundation of the company, its competitors and its customers. To differentiate themselves, Galeries Lafayette manufactured and sold models inspired by those of the couturiers under the store private label. At the turn of the twentieth century, while fashion houses claimed a monopoly on trend setting, Galeries Lafayette introduced fashion in department store. This effective appropriation of fashion design built the legitimacy of the company as an intermediary, and posited the prescribing power of the brand in the fashion market. It also made Galeries Lafayette a player in the economy of counterfeiting, a major issue for the apparel industry in the inter-war period. The thesis shows, however, that various management regimes for design exist at Galeries Lafayette. In a second part, we analyze the investments of the company in the creative industries and in particular the cases of Chanel Perfumes as well as Madeleine Vionnet and Jean Patou fashion houses. In doing so, for the first time, the thesis analyzes the financing of fashion houses thus unbundling the study of the main actors in the fashion system. In a third part, the thesis studies competitive and market change from World War II onwards: the modernization of the clothing industry, the ready-to-wear revolution, and the emergence of new capitals of fashion besides Paris. The dismantling of the vertical integration in manufacturing, the opening of central purchasing to new suppliers, the pioneering establishment of in-house fashion forecasting office in the early 1950s induced a new organization and changes in the link between creators, designers, industrialists and customers for Galeries Lafayette.

Background and motivation Informal food vending has many benefits that range from food security for the urban poor, to contribution to local economies. Yet, the street food sector is not recognized and is treated as a major public health risk. This is based partly on perceptions of local authorities that street food vendors are undesirable, or are a temporary phenomenon that will disappear in due course as a result of development. Moreover, a number of studies have documented contamination of street foods with pathogenic microorganisms like Staphylococci aureus and enteric organisms. The former can grow and express virulence in foods such as meat and meat products post cooking. To date no participatory risk analysis methods have been applied to informal markets in Tshwane, to study the food value chain of ready-to-eat (RTE) chicken and quantify the risk of exposure to selected foodborne diseases, or to determine predictors for contamination of RTE chicken sold by informal vendors. Methodology A cross-sectional analytical study design was adopted to achieve the objectives of the present study. The study area was city of Tshwane, Gauteng Province, South Africa. The study population was informal vendors selling RTE chicken to commuters at taxi and bus stations and the sampling design involved cluster sampling. Markets were the sampling units and the informal vendors the units of concern. All clusters (n=13) that were identified were included in the study and all informal vendors located within the markets were invited to be part of the study. A total of 237 vendors agreed to be interviewed, have checklists filled in for their vending stalls, and provided a sample of RTE chicken (n= 237) for laboratory analysis. Participatory Risk Analysis, a novel approach to understanding food safety in data scarce environments, was used to collect data for analysis. Participatory research methods employed in this study included: check-lists and structured interviews with informal vendors, proportional piling and focus group discussions. Enumeration of bacterial colonies from RTE chicken samples was performed using 3MTM PetrifilmTM plates (3M, St. Paul. Mn, USA). Data for the demographic profile of vendors (n=237) was analysed using descriptive statistics to establish means and proportions. Thematic analysis combined with descriptive statistical analysis was used to establish and quantify the food value chain of informally traded RTE chicken. Stochastic risk analysis using @Risk 4.5 (Palisade Corp., Ithaca, N.Y.), was used to estimate the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning from consumption of street-vended RTE chicken. Univariable and multivariable regression models were developed using Stata 9.0 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA) to determine predictors for contamination of RTE chicken with E. coli and coliform bacteria respectively. Results The majority of vendors in the markets studied were females (92%), and were between 25-50 years of age. Very few young people (< 25 years) were involved. More than half of the vendors (69.47%) ran the informal food outlet as a personal business. The minority were long term employees (15.04%) or were hired to help out for a short period of time (0.88%). A high level of literacy was observed among informal vendors. Assessment of hygiene practices showed a low level of compliance with regard to possession of a certificate of acceptance, washing of hands and utensils in the same container and controlling flies at the vending site. The environment in which informal vendors operated was not conducive to production of safe food. This means that Key 1 of the WHO five keys to safer food that requires that food production takes place in a clean environment was violated. Contamination of RTE chicken was associated with the use of water collected and supplied in containers of questionable microbiological status. This was because vendors also violated Key 5 of the WHO five keys to safer food, which requires that raw materials, including water used to prepare food should be of a high microbiological quality. However, high compliance was observed with regard to the following aspects: not wearing jewellery while preparing food, using cutlery to pick up RTE chicken, washable floors (concrete slabs and cemented floors), use of potable municipal water, preparing food in a closed structure (temporary or permanent) and locating vending stalls within 30m from the toilets. Four food value chains for RTE chicken, sold by informal vendors, were identified showing extensive cross-over from the formal to informal sector. This extensive cross-over, was corroborated by the fact that over 79.3% of the RTE chicken sold on informal markets in Tshwane metropolis, was sourced from formal markets such as supermarkets or wholesalers. The food value chain for RTE chicken was short, meaning that it involved very few stages from farm to fork. Furthermore the tendency was for the RTE chicken to be purchased, cooked and consumed the same day. Although the prevalence of contamination of RTE chicken with S. aureus was high (44%), the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning was estimated to be only 1.3% (90% CI: 0% - 2.7%) for each meal of RTE chicken consumed. The mean S. aureus counts in the RTE chicken was 103.6 (90% CI: 103.3 – 103.9). This level was lower than the 105 CFU/g needed to induce staphylococcal food poisoning. While contamination of RTE chicken with E. coli (6.32 %) was low, contamination with coliforms (23.21 %) was moderate. This suggests a moderate level of food hygiene. The fly population at the stalls where the RTE was on display, intermittent washing of hands, the location of the stall >30 m from the toilets and holding RTE chicken at <70 C were identified as important predictors of contamination with E. coli. Whereas, the use of potable toilets without hand washing facilities and poor hand washing practices were a positive predictor for contamination with coliforms. Conclusions The informal trade in food in Tshwane is dominated by women and for the majority of these vendors the informal trade in food, is the main source of employment. A risk communication strategy needs to take this into consideration. There is need for intervention to improve the hygiene in the informal markets and ensure that informal vendors observe the WHO five keys to safe food. The high level of literacy observed among informal vendors is good news, as it presents a situation of educated vendors; a fertile ground for initiatives aimed at improving their lives and the service they offer to their customers. There is neither a food policy aimed at ensuring food security for the urban poor nor evidence it is being implemented. This is supported by the high number of vendors operating in temporary structures. There is a need for the municipal authorities to intervene, to provide appropriate structures. Planning of new taxi ranks should include a proper food market, with facilities that meet the legal requirements for production of safe food. Informal vendors have demonstrated an awareness of the need to practice good food hygiene as proved by the compliance with certain hygienic food handling practices. The link between the formal and informal markets suggests that the informal market of RTE chicken is well-established with a reliable source of raw chicken. Furthermore, the strong inter-linkage between the formal and informal value chain for RTE chicken, further confirms the informal sector as a potential market for locally produced product. It also emphasizes its potential to impact on the economy of the city. In addition, this strong inter-linkage, suggests that the risks associated with the formal sector might be mirrored in the informal. Therefore, as the supermarket proliferation takes root in the rest of Africa, this food value chain and its associated risks might become the norm on the continent. The present study shows that participatory risk analysis is a good way to obtain data on informal markets. Such data can then be subjected to quantitative microbial risk analysis using sophisticated biostatistical techniques, to determine and quantify the microbial risks. The low risk of staphylococcal food poisoning proved that despite the poor working conditions under which the informal food vendors prepare food, they are able to produce food that is unlikely to result in food poisoning. However, due to the high prevalence of contamination of RTE chicken with S. aureus, there is a need for the informal vendors in these markets to be trained to improve hygienic food handling practices. On the positive side, the present study demonstrated that high prevalence of contamination does not always translate into high risk. The relatively low to moderate level of contamination with E. coli and coliforms respectively, suggests a low risk of enteric foodborne diseases from ingestion of RTE chicken. Given that some and not all hygiene practices were significantly associated with contamination of RTE chicken, monitoring authorities should emphasise identified predicators to reduce the risk of contamination and the subsequent risk of contracting foodborne diseases. The difference in hygiene scoring highlights that the one-size-fits all approach to monitoring of informal markets may not be effective. These need to be tailored to suit the individual informal markets. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Paraclinical Sciences / PhD / Unrestricted

Applicable image-based reconstruction of three-dimensional (3D) objects offers many interesting industrial as well as private use cases, such as augmented reality, reverse engineering, 3D printing and simulation tasks. Unfortunately, image-based 3D reconstruction is not yet applicable to these quite complex tasks, since the resulting 3D models are single, monolithic objects without any division into logical or functional subparts. This thesis aims at making image-based 3D reconstruction feasible such that captures of standard cameras can be used for creating functional 3D models. The research presented in the following does not focus on the fine-tuning of algorithms to achieve minor improvements, but evaluates the entire processing pipeline of image-based 3D reconstruction and tries to contribute at four critical points, where significant improvement can be achieved by advanced human-computer interaction: (i) As the starting point of any 3D reconstruction process, the object of interest (OOI) that should be reconstructed needs to be annotated. For this task, novel pixel-accurate OOI annotation as an interactive process is presented, and an appropriate software solution is released. (ii) To improve the interactive annotation process, traditional interface devices, like mouse and keyboard, are supplemented with human sensory data to achieve closer user interaction. (iii) In practice, a major obstacle is the so far missing standard for file formats for annotation, which leads to numerous proprietary solutions. Therefore, a uniform standard file format is implemented and used for prototyping the first gaze-improved computer vision algorithms. As a sideline of this research, analogies between the close interaction of humans and computer vision systems and 3D perception are identified and evaluated. (iv) Finally, to reduce the processing time of the underlying algorithms used for 3D reconstruction, the ability of artificial neural networks to reconstruct 3D models of unknown OOIs is investigated. Summarizing, the gained improvements show that applicable image-based 3D reconstruction is within reach but nowadays only feasible by supporting human-computer interaction. Two software solutions, one for visual video analytics and one for spare part reconstruction are implemented. In the future, automated 3D reconstruction that produces functional 3D models can be reached only when algorithms become capable of acquiring semantic knowledge. Until then, the world knowledge provided to the 3D reconstruction pipeline by human computer interaction is indispensable.

No description available.

[ES] La seguridad alimentaria es una prioridad para la población y en la actualidad cobra mayor importancia por ciertas tendencias alimentarias como el consumo de alimentos crudos y la distribución generalizada de alimentos orgánicos, que pueden ser la causa de enfermedades transmitidas por alimentos. Para garantizar la seguridad alimentaria, la detección de estos microorganismos debe realizarse de manera rápida y eficiente. Par eso, el método de cultivo microbiológico se considera el oficial para la detección de estos patógenos. Sin embargo, adolece de importantes inconvenientes, ya que no solo requiere mucho tiempo, sino que también es laborioso y consume muchos recursos. Además, puede ser limitado con respecto a la detección de bacterias fisiológicamente alteradas y/o estresadas durante el almacenamiento y la conservación. En este trabajo se ha desarrollado un protocolo sencillo y rápido para la detección simultánea de E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. aureus y S. enterica en alimentos, mediante la combinación de una etapa de co-cultivo en medio líquido y la detección por PCR múltiple. Se ha evaluado la eficiencia de varios medios de enriquecimiento y se seleccionó el agua de peptona tamponada como el medio óptimo para el co-cultivo de las cuatro bacterias diana. También se optimizaron las condiciones de PCR múltiple y se aplicaron tanto a co-cultivos como a muestras de alimentos inoculados artificialmente, lechuga orgánica y carne picada. Después de la optimización, la PCR múltiple desarrollada fue capaz de detectar las cuatro bacterias simultáneamente, hasta con una inoculación inicial de 10^0 UFC/mL. En presencia de ambas matrices alimentarias inoculadas, tras la etapa de co-cultivo, la PCR múltiple pudo detectar simultáneamente las 3 bacterias E. coli, S. enterica y L. monocytogenes, mientras que S. aureus se ha detectado por PCR simplex, a partir del mismo extracto de ADN del co-cultivo. Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que el uso de un paso de co-cultivo en Agua peptona tamponada, antes de la detección por PCR simple y múltiple, puede facilitar la detección simultánea de las cuatro bacterias potencialmente presentes en las matrices alimentarias. La presencia o ausencia de la bacteria diana en los alimentos se confirma en unas 30 horas, lo que reduce el tiempo requerido para la detección en comparación con el tiempo mínimo de 7 días por método cultural. Asimismo, permite reducir el número de medios de cultivo y reactivos, para el aislamiento e identificación de bacterias que no son detectadas por PCR y que no están presentes en las matrices alimentarias, lo que supone un importante ahorro económico. / [CA] La seguretat alimentària sempre és una prioritat per a la població i en l' actualitat cobra major importància per certes tendències alimentàries, com el consum d' aliments crus i la distribució generalitzada d' aliments orgànics, que poden ser la causa de malalties transmeses per aliments. Per garantir la seguretat alimentària, la detecció d' aquests microorganismes s' ha de realitzar de manera ràpida i eficient. Per a això, el mètode de cultiu microbiològic es considera l' oficial per a la detecció d' aquests patògens. Però, hi ha importants inconvenients, ja que no només requereix més temps, sinó que també és laboriós i consumeix molts recursos. A més, pot ser limitat pel que fa a la detecció de bacteris fisiològicament alterats i/o estressats durant l'emmagatzematge i la conservació. En aquest treball s'ha desenvolupat un protocol senzill i ràpid per a la detecció simultània d' E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. aureus i S. enterica en aliments, mitjançant la combinació d' una etapa de co-cultiu en medi líquid i la detecció per PCR múltiple. S'ha avaluat l'eficiència de diversos mitjans d'enriquiment i s'ha seleccionat l'aigua de peptona tamponada com el medi òptim per al co-cultiu dels quatre bacteris diana. També es van optimitzar les condicions de PCR múltiple i es van aplicar tant a co-cultius com a mostres d'aliments inoculats artificialment, enciam orgànic i carn picada. Després de l'optimització, la PCR múltiple desenvolupada va ser capaç de detectar els quatre bacteris simultàniament, fins a una inoculació inicial de 10^0 UFC/mL. En presència d' ambdues matrius alimentàries inoculades, després l' etapa de co-cultiu, la PCR múltiple va poder detectar simultàniament els 3 bacteris: E. coli, S. enterica i L. monocytogenes, mentre que S. aureus s' ha detectat per PCR simple, a partir del mateix extracte d' ADN del co-cultiu. Els resultats obtinguts permeten concloure que l' ús d' un pas de co-cultiu en Aigua de peptona tamponada, abans de la detecció per PCR simple i múltiple, pot facilitar la detecció simultània dels quatre bacteris potencialment presents en les matrius alimentàries. La presència o absència del bacteri diana en els aliments es confirma en unes 30 hores, la qual cosa redueix el temps requerit per a la detecció en comparació amb el temps mínim de 7 dies per mètode cultural. Així mateix, permet reduir el nombre de mitjans de cultiu i reactius, per a l' aïllament i identificació de bacteris que no són detectats per PCR i que no estan presents en les matrius alimentàries, la qual cosa suposa un important estalvi econòmic. / [EN] Food safety is a priority for the population and is nowadays more important than ever due to certain dietary trends such as the consumption of raw foods and the widespread distribution of organic foods, which may be the cause of foodborne diseases. To ensure food safety, the detection of these microorganisms must be done quickly and efficiently. Although, the microbiological culture method is considered to be the official method for the detection of these food-borne pathogens, it suffers from significant drawbacks, such as time-consuming, laborious and expensive, in addition it may be limited regarding the detection of physiologically altered and/or stressed bacteria, during storage and preservation. In this work has been developed a simple and rapid protocol for the simultaneous detection of E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and S. enterica in food, by combining a liquid co-culture step and detection by multiplex PCR. The efficiency of several enrichment media was evaluated and buffered peptone water was chosen as the optimal medium for the co-culture of the four target bacteria. Then, optimized multiplex PCR conditions were applied to both the co-cultures and the samples of artificially inoculated foods, organic lettuce and ground meat. After optimization, the developed multiplex PCR was able to simultaneously detect the four bacteria, up to an initial inoculation of 10^0 CFU/mL. In the presence of the two inoculated food matrices, after a co-culture step, the multiplex PCR could simultaneously detect the 3 bacteria: E. coli, S. enterica and L. monocytogenes, whereas, S. aureus has been detected by simplex PCR, from the same co-culture DNA template. The results obtained allow conclusion that the use of a co-culture step in Buffered Peptone Water, before detection by simplex and multiplex PCR, can facilitate the simultaneous detection of the four bacteria potentially present in the food matrices. The presence or the absence of the target bacteria in food is confirmed in approximately 30 hours, which reduce the time required for the detection compared to the minimum time of 7 days by cultural method. Also, it allows to reduce the number of culture media and reagents, for the isolation and identification of bacteria that are not detected by PCR and which are not initially present in the food matrices, which represents a significant economic savings. / Boukharouba, A. (2022). Isolation and Identification of Foodborne Pathogens of Special Interest in Food Safety [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/182828

This work deals with issues of business trips in primary schools that are provided by municipality in relation to the law No. 365/2011 Sb., that changes law No. 262/2006 Sb., Labour code, as amended and other related laws valid since January 1st 2012 that says empoyees cannot give up on their rights in advance. Based on assumption that travel expenses that must have been paid to employees in full are huge burden on school budgets. All the travelling with pupils becomes very expensive. According to connection between theory and practical use, all activities cannot be provided only at school and it's necessary that teachers travel with children to learn away from school. This work summaries the rules for reimbursement of travel expenses and reflects the views of headmasters at issues of business trips in primary schools. Keywords: Business trip, working hours, time for relax, night shifts, be ready to work on call, weekend working, working during holiday, working overtime, travel espenses, meals, driving refunds, accommodation expenses, necessary side expenses, budget, financial sources

面對未來全球人口成長、可耕地減少等現象，生物技術在農業上的應用日益增加。其中，基因改造技術等基因層次相關的平臺應用技術更是提升農作物價值的關鍵—透過跨物種功能應用，大幅提升育種效率。自1996年基改作物商業化種植開始至今，美國都是全球最大種植國家，也是基改作物研發先驅國家。生技農業政策以及和基因改造作物有關法規之制訂使基改作物在美國蓬勃發展，尤其是專利保護對於種子產業之影響尤為深遠。專利權所提供的完善保護使大量資本進入種子產業，投入資源將農業生物技術應用於種子培育上，此舉也促成Monsanto等跨國農業生技公司之興起，主導全球基因改造作物之市場。 Monsanto將研發重心放在基改種子之研發，其在生技種子相關營業比重遠高於同業，同時，其投入特殊性狀之基改種子研發之回收遠高於其他公司之相同營業項目之投資報酬率。Monsanto積極藉由併購取得基因、基因轉殖技術以及種子種源。掌握關鍵基因、基因轉殖技術以及大量且優良種源使含有Monsanto轉殖基因作物在市場上佔有極大的比例。在美國，超過一半以上之主要作物種植面積為基因改造作物，尤其是基因改造大豆，佔大豆總種植面積之比例高達94%。市面上絕大多數基改大豆係Monsanto的抗嘉磷塞（RounupReady，RR1Y）基改大豆種子。藉由智慧財產保護策略，Monsanto並進一步限制RR1Y及其他基改作物之使用方式。 惟RR1Y專利將在2014年到期，農民可在2014年時留種種植基改大豆種子而不用每年購買種子，或購買學名（generic）抗嘉磷塞轉基因大豆種子。在美國所種植之大豆約有四成會外銷，而外銷國家基改作物規範法規是出口與否之關鍵。若未取得歐盟、中國等主要外銷國家基改作物主管機關之批准，呈交包括基因之轉殖植物對環境衝擊之風險評估、包含該基因之轉殖植物所製成食品之安全性評估等基改作物資訊，則抗嘉磷塞基因大豆無法進入該國糧食市場。然而，在目前美國農業生技基改作物相關規範下，學名基改種子廠必須在專利種子專利到期後，才能進行實驗及田間試驗，呈交相關資料以符合基改作物主管機關之要求。透過建立學名基改作物快速獲得核准查驗登記之程序，允許學名廠依賴專利基改作物原廠之實驗及田間試驗資料以建立其學名基改作物之安全性與性狀表現有效性，同時，允許學名基改作物在原基改作物開發廠專利期滿前即可開始進行試驗，可以使學名抗嘉磷塞大豆種子以及其他學名基改種子能在原專利基改作物種子專利到期後順利進入市場，促使基改作物種子價格競爭，並對於專利基改作物研發公司進行適度之補償，以促進產業發展。 / The development of new technologies in plant breeding has led to improvements in the efficiency scientists produce improved plant varieties. Genetic modification is among the developments that support plant breeding. The introduction of genetically modified crops has revolutionized the agriculture industry. With patent protection available on GM traits, varieties and other aspects of seed production, private R&D investments in the seed industry have increased tremendously. Monsanto has been the leading company in investing agricultural biotechnology and has obtained a dominant position in the GM traits found in soybeans, cotton, corn and other commercialized crops. Currently, over 90 percent of soybeans planted in the United States were herbicide-resistant, with Monsanto’s Roundup Ready being the dominant soybeans planted. In 2014, however, the agriculture industry will be facing the expiration of a patent for Roundup Ready soybeans. Despiate the fact that the patent expiration date is approaching, the agricultural biotech industry has no guideline in place to tell its players exactly how to transition seamlessly from patent monopolies to generic competition. The transition problem is espectially significant for soybeans exported to oversea markets as more than 40 percent of the soybeans grown in the U.S. are exported. In order for those soybeans to be accepted in the grain channel, regulatory approvals are required in countries that import soybeans. Obtaining data, which includes scitific data on the trait being developed, for regulatory approvals can take years to complete. If a generic trait is to reach market immediately after the original trait go off patent, the data generation process should begin before patent expiration. A Hatch-Waxman type patent infringement defense for activities necessary to obtain regulatory approvals for biotech traits can ensure that seed companies have sufficient time to obtain registrations for a generic Roundup Ready trait or other generic traits. Current legislation should be modified to adequately oversee the transition to the generic use of genetically modified crops and, in the mean time, ensure the availability of generic modified crops.