<p>Syftet med denna studie är att ge en insikt i hur elever med kombinerade läs- och skriv och matematiksvårigheter tänker och resonerar vid problemlösning.</p><p>Tre elever i år 8, som alla ingår i samma specialundervisningsgrupp i matematik, har arbetat med olika typer av matematisk problemlösning, såväl individuellt som i grupp. Med utgångspunkt i deras arbete skapas början till en grundad teori.</p><p>I forskningssammanhang behandlas ofta denna kategori elever (med kombinerade problem) som en enhetlig kategori som jämförs med t ex elever med enbart matematiksvårigheter, normalpresterande elever osv. Denna undersökning visar dock att de svårigheter eleverna uppvisar är av mycket olika karaktär.</p><p>Studien omfattar tre delar: en presentation av fältstudien och resultaten från denna, en metoddel innefattande en pilotstudie som koncentreras på datainsamlingsmetoden samt en omfattande litteraturstudie som behandlar problemlösning och inlärningssvårigheter.</p>

<p>Reading Recovery är ett vida spritt, individcentrerat men reproducerbart program för de svagaste eleverna efter sitt första skolår. Reading Recovery har sitt ursprung på Nya Zeeland, där professor Marie Clay med kollegor med början under 1970-talet bedrev omfattande läsforskning.</p><p>Den enskilda undervisningen sker enligt en strukturerad lektionsram under 30 minuter dagligen. Programmet bygger på genomgripande utbildning och kontinuerlig fortbildning av redan framgångsrika grundskollärare för att rusta dem för att fatta individuella, pedagogiska beslut med syfte att accelerera läs- och skrivinlärningen hos de utsedda barnen. Eleverna stimuleras att lära sig läsa och skriva genom att främst läsa korta, intresseväckande böcker samt engageras i anslutande skrivande. Betoning ligger på att eleverna ska bli självständiga och utveckla metakognitiva strategier. Elever väljs ut till Reading Recovery genom klasslärarens rekommendation samt utifrån elevens resultat på en omfattande serie tester inom den s.k. Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement; en observation av den tidiga läs- och skrivförmågan. Vanligtvis erbjuds Reading Recovery-undervisning till de 20 procent på respektive skola, vilka uppnått lägst resultat på ovanstående tester. Det grundläggande syftet med programmet är att reducera antalet elever med grava svårigheter att utveckla läs- och skrivförmåga samt att minimera kostnaden för deras utbildning.</p><p>En majoritet av eleverna i Reading Recovery når avsedda mål och i internationella jämförelser ligger Nya Zeeland vanligen bland de högst rankade länderna i läsning. Samtliga av mina respondenter vittnade om de stora fördelarna med Reading Recovery. Enligt mina observationer stämmer pedagogernas faktiska utförande väl överens med programmets ursprungliga teoribas.</p> / <p>Reading Recovery is a widely disseminated, replicable, early intervention program for the lowest performing first-grade students. Originally, Marie Clay and colleagues constructed Reading Recovery in New Zealand on the base of broad research from the 1970’s and onwards. It utilizes a uniform lesson framework and extensive professional development to help already successful teachers make individual, instructional decisions designed to accelerate the literacy learning of the selected children within one-to-one, 30-minute daily lessons. The children are stimulated to learn to read and write by reading and writing. Short stories are used and writing activities are connected to reading. Emphasis is on teachers guiding children to be independent and learn metacognitive strategies.</p><p>Reading Recovery students are identified for services based on teachers’ recommendations and the students’ performances on the Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, with a number of wide-ranging assessments. Usually, students who score at or below the 20th percentile on the survey at a particular school are provided the intervention.</p><p>The fundamental purpose of the program is to reduce the number of students who have severe difficulty developing literacy skills and to reduce the cost of educating them. A majority of the Reading Recovery students do reach the intended goals and in international comparative studies New Zealand usually is among the top ranking countries in reading.</p><p>All my interviewees testified of the great advantages of Reading Recovery and, according to my conclusions, actual practice is well correlated with theory.</p>

<p>The purpose of the paper is to examine how teachers in preschool is working with language stimulation for the prevention of difficulties in reading and writing before school starts. The method that was used to illuminate the problem is a qualitative interview. A specialpedagog and six preschool teacher, which is specifically focused on language stimulation in the work with children, have been included in the study. The results indicated that preschool teacher are working a lot with language stimulation. They work mostly with children throughout the group, to encourage and provide children with the tools to be able to communicate with each other and staff. Decks language are used in daily activities. The form of language stimulation creates the conditions for participation and activity, where children are stimulated by each other. Student teachers stressed that <em>signs as a support</em> is something good to work with at nursery, because it gives all the children a chance to communicate. It appears that preschool teatcher want to work more consciously with language stimulation for the prevention of reading and writingproblems and thereby affect the whole child's development positively. In my literature review it is shown that previous researches have reached similar results. Something that is highlighted in the literature are that <em>signs as a support</em> increased opportunities for communication. It could involve children, who, for various reasons do not have access to the Swedish language, such as small children who have not yet developed the language, children with bad hearing or immigrant children.</p> / <p>Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur pedagoger i förskolan arbetar med språkstimulering för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter inför skolstarten. Metoden som har använts för att belysa problemområdet är kvalitativ intervju. En specialpedagog och sex förskollärare, som är speciellt inriktad på språkstimulering i arbetet med barnen, har ingått i studien. I resultaten framkommer att pedagoger arbetar en hel del med språkstimulering. De arbetar oftast med hela barngruppen, för att stimulera och ge barnen verktyg till att kunna kommunicera med varandra och personalen. Språklekar används i den dagliga verksamheten. Den formen av språkstimulering skapar förutsättningar för deltagande och aktivitet, där barnen stimuleras av varandra. Pedagogerna framhåller att, <em>tecken som stöd</em> är någonting bra att arbeta med på förskolor, eftersom det ger alla barn en chans att kommunicera. Det framkommer att pedagogerna vill arbeta mer medvetet med språkstimulering för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter och därigenom påverka hela barnets utveckling positivt. I min litteraturstudie har tidigare forskning kommit fram till liknande resultat. Någonting som framhålls i litteraturen är, <em>tecken som stöd,</em> för att skapa ökade möjligheter för kommunikation. Det kan gälla barn, som av olika skäl inte har tillgång till det svenska språket, exempelvis små barn som ännu inte utvecklat språket, barn som hör dåligt eller invandrarbarn.</p>

<p>The purpose of this report is to contribute with knowledge about the views within special education. I want to explore and compare the way students with special needs are approached within two different pedagogies in Sweden: Waldorf pedagogy and Montessori pedagogy.</p><p>I have closely studied these pedagogies, read the literature from existing research and also by conducting two interviews with a representative from each pedagogy Both pedagogies claim that their teaching methods are most suitable for children with reading and writing difficulties..</p><p>The Waldorf pedagogy was founded in 1919 in Germany by Rudolf Steiner. The pedagogy believes in the development of the students into independent children who can use their bodies as a tool for the learning of knowledge. The Montessori pedagogy was also founded in the beginning of the nineteenth century and stands for developing the students into independent individuals. However, the pedagogical approach to reading, writing and dyslexia is different. The Waldorf teachers avoid the term dyslexia because many of them have the opinion that these children are being diagnosed too easily.  The method of teaching is relatively relaxed and to be able to read and write is not necessary during the first years in school. On the other hand, the Montessori teachers are planning their students education so that they learn how to read and write during the first year, when they are only six years old. They believe that all students have different backgrounds and that a child who is attending a Montessori school is no different than the children who are studying within the traditional school system in Sweden.</p> / <p>Syftet med detta examensarbete är att bidra med kunskap inom synen på specialpedagogik. Jag vill se och jämföra bemötandet av elever med speciella behov inom två pedagogiker i Sverige; Waldorfpedagogik och Montessoripedagogik.</p><p>Jag har studerat dessa pedagogiker närmare, gjort en litteraturstudie av den tidigare forskningen och även genomfört två intervjuer med en representant från vardera pedagogik. Båda pedagogikerna hävdar att deras undervisningssätt är mest lämpat för elever med läs- och skrivsvårigheter, detta trots de stora skillnaderna i deras sätt att undervisa.</p><p>Waldorfpedagogiken grundades 1919 i Tyskland av Rudolf Steiner. Pedagogiken står för att utveckla eleverna till själständiga människor som kan använda sin kropp som ett verktyg för kunskapsinlärning. Montessoripedagogiken uppkom även den i början av 1900-talet och står också den för att utveckla eleverna till självständiga individer. Dock skiljer sig synsättet på läs- och skrivinlärning samt dyslexi betydligt. Waldorfpedagogerna drar sig för att använda begreppet dyslexi i skolan då många anser att eleverna diagnostiseras allt för lätt. Undervisningssättet har ett relativt lugnt tempo och att kunna bruka läsning och skrivning är inget som krävs under de första åren i skolan. Montessoripedagogerna å andra sidan lägger upp arbetssättet så att eleverna lär sig läsa och skriva redan i förskoleklassen och arbetar utefter det. De menar att alla har olika bagage med sig och att det inte är någon skillnad på eleverna som läser enligt Montessoripedagogik jämfört med den traditionella skolgången.</p>

The thesis describes what happens when twelve students learn to read and write. The main purpose of this thesis is to shed light on the learning process of the students, with respect to reading and writing, based on the specific learning environment. Special attention is given to the relationship between the individual and the environment. It is the author's strong belief that one needs to look at both these aspects together. Further, the intention of the thesis is not to compare different environments in terms of good or bad, but rather to use them as examples of situated social practices for reading. The investigation has an ethnographic approach and is based primarily on qualitative data collected by personal studies of the students' reading and writing processes in the classroom environment. Secondly, estimations of the students' reading abilities have been performed in order to validate various kinds of data. Twelve students have been studied from August 1998 when they started in first grade and until March 2001. The analysis derives from Vygotskij's theory, the sociocultural perspective, and to get a better understanding of differences and similarities between the environments, Bernstein's theory about the visible and invisible pedagogic was used. The result indicates that in a classroom, students show a variety of specific behaviours related to the setting in different ways. The conclusion of this thesis is that it is urgent to make teachers observe and pay attention to the behaviour pattern of each group of readers. Teachers hereby receive a tool that gives them a chance to identify students with negative patterns in purpose to make them choose a constructive way of learning. Through guidance the teacher may transfer successful strategies and/or design situations that make it possible for the students to discover an alternative way of learning.

Reading Recovery är ett vida spritt, individcentrerat men reproducerbart program för de svagaste eleverna efter sitt första skolår. Reading Recovery har sitt ursprung på Nya Zeeland, där professor Marie Clay med kollegor med början under 1970-talet bedrev omfattande läsforskning. Den enskilda undervisningen sker enligt en strukturerad lektionsram under 30 minuter dagligen. Programmet bygger på genomgripande utbildning och kontinuerlig fortbildning av redan framgångsrika grundskollärare för att rusta dem för att fatta individuella, pedagogiska beslut med syfte att accelerera läs- och skrivinlärningen hos de utsedda barnen. Eleverna stimuleras att lära sig läsa och skriva genom att främst läsa korta, intresseväckande böcker samt engageras i anslutande skrivande. Betoning ligger på att eleverna ska bli självständiga och utveckla metakognitiva strategier. Elever väljs ut till Reading Recovery genom klasslärarens rekommendation samt utifrån elevens resultat på en omfattande serie tester inom den s.k. Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement; en observation av den tidiga läs- och skrivförmågan. Vanligtvis erbjuds Reading Recovery-undervisning till de 20 procent på respektive skola, vilka uppnått lägst resultat på ovanstående tester. Det grundläggande syftet med programmet är att reducera antalet elever med grava svårigheter att utveckla läs- och skrivförmåga samt att minimera kostnaden för deras utbildning. En majoritet av eleverna i Reading Recovery når avsedda mål och i internationella jämförelser ligger Nya Zeeland vanligen bland de högst rankade länderna i läsning. Samtliga av mina respondenter vittnade om de stora fördelarna med Reading Recovery. Enligt mina observationer stämmer pedagogernas faktiska utförande väl överens med programmets ursprungliga teoribas. / Reading Recovery is a widely disseminated, replicable, early intervention program for the lowest performing first-grade students. Originally, Marie Clay and colleagues constructed Reading Recovery in New Zealand on the base of broad research from the 1970’s and onwards. It utilizes a uniform lesson framework and extensive professional development to help already successful teachers make individual, instructional decisions designed to accelerate the literacy learning of the selected children within one-to-one, 30-minute daily lessons. The children are stimulated to learn to read and write by reading and writing. Short stories are used and writing activities are connected to reading. Emphasis is on teachers guiding children to be independent and learn metacognitive strategies. Reading Recovery students are identified for services based on teachers’ recommendations and the students’ performances on the Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, with a number of wide-ranging assessments. Usually, students who score at or below the 20th percentile on the survey at a particular school are provided the intervention. The fundamental purpose of the program is to reduce the number of students who have severe difficulty developing literacy skills and to reduce the cost of educating them. A majority of the Reading Recovery students do reach the intended goals and in international comparative studies New Zealand usually is among the top ranking countries in reading. All my interviewees testified of the great advantages of Reading Recovery and, according to my conclusions, actual practice is well correlated with theory.

The purpose of the paper is to examine how teachers in preschool is working with language stimulation for the prevention of difficulties in reading and writing before school starts. The method that was used to illuminate the problem is a qualitative interview. A specialpedagog and six preschool teacher, which is specifically focused on language stimulation in the work with children, have been included in the study. The results indicated that preschool teacher are working a lot with language stimulation. They work mostly with children throughout the group, to encourage and provide children with the tools to be able to communicate with each other and staff. Decks language are used in daily activities. The form of language stimulation creates the conditions for participation and activity, where children are stimulated by each other. Student teachers stressed that signs as a support is something good to work with at nursery, because it gives all the children a chance to communicate. It appears that preschool teatcher want to work more consciously with language stimulation for the prevention of reading and writingproblems and thereby affect the whole child's development positively. In my literature review it is shown that previous researches have reached similar results. Something that is highlighted in the literature are that signs as a support increased opportunities for communication. It could involve children, who, for various reasons do not have access to the Swedish language, such as small children who have not yet developed the language, children with bad hearing or immigrant children. / Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur pedagoger i förskolan arbetar med språkstimulering för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter inför skolstarten. Metoden som har använts för att belysa problemområdet är kvalitativ intervju. En specialpedagog och sex förskollärare, som är speciellt inriktad på språkstimulering i arbetet med barnen, har ingått i studien. I resultaten framkommer att pedagoger arbetar en hel del med språkstimulering. De arbetar oftast med hela barngruppen, för att stimulera och ge barnen verktyg till att kunna kommunicera med varandra och personalen. Språklekar används i den dagliga verksamheten. Den formen av språkstimulering skapar förutsättningar för deltagande och aktivitet, där barnen stimuleras av varandra. Pedagogerna framhåller att, tecken som stöd är någonting bra att arbeta med på förskolor, eftersom det ger alla barn en chans att kommunicera. Det framkommer att pedagogerna vill arbeta mer medvetet med språkstimulering för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter och därigenom påverka hela barnets utveckling positivt. I min litteraturstudie har tidigare forskning kommit fram till liknande resultat. Någonting som framhålls i litteraturen är, tecken som stöd, för att skapa ökade möjligheter för kommunikation. Det kan gälla barn, som av olika skäl inte har tillgång till det svenska språket, exempelvis små barn som ännu inte utvecklat språket, barn som hör dåligt eller invandrarbarn.

The purpose of this study is to describe some primary school teachers understanding of language development and approach of first and second language speakers with Arne Tragetons Writing to reading, for pupils in early ages. By using a qualitative method with interviews and participant observations and informal conversations, the basis for the survey was collected. Four teachers in three schools participated. The proportion of second-language pupils at each school was 35%, 17% and 0%. My theoretical starting point in the study was the hermeneutic research tradition, which has been used to interpret and understand the collected material. Theories of behaviorism, constructivism and socio-cultural perspective has been used in the analysis part of this study. Furthermore, the material has been compared against previous research on reading and writing development using computers. The development of reading and writing has been studied by the concept of functional reading and writing, theories of motivation, and pupil-oriented scaffolding of the proximal development zone. The results indicate that the teachers mainly use a sociocultural approach. They have a student close thinking in terms of both knowledge and interest in the implementation of teaching. The teachers take a positive view on learning with the aid of computer. They see the benefits that pupils have a good production of texts and that students have the opportunity to develop a meta-language through cooperation and dialogue when working with computers. A further result is that what is supportive for second language speaking pupils is also supportive for native language speaking pupils.

Studien handlar om läs- och skrivsvårigheter och syftet med detta arbete var att få kunskap om hur några pedagoger med hjälp av en speciallärare utformar den dagliga undervisningen för elever som har läs- och skrivsvårigheter i år tre – fem i en Montessoriskola. Intervjuer användes som datainsamlingsmetod för att få kunskap och djupare förståelse. Då det endast var tre pedagoger som ställde upp med sin kunskap och tid kan inga generella slutsatser dras av denna studie. Resultatet visar att pedagogerna i den mån det är möjligt arbetar utifrån elevernas behov och att de anpassar material och övningar efter elevens förutsättningar. Pedagogerna är mycket medvetna om de brister som finns när det gäller användandet av kompensatoriska hjälpmedel då eleverna för närvarande endast har talböcker att tillgå.

The development of five individual pupils’ writing abilities, as reported by six of their teachers, is analysed. The thoughts and reflexions inspired by the everyday interaction between the teacher and the pupil suffering from some kind of reading and writing disability are presented. The purpose is to capture what was unique and characteristic in the measures that triggered a positive response in the pupils. Some of the questions answered in this study are: How does the phenomenon of reading and writing disabilities manifest itself in the classroom, and what are the consequences for the individual pupil of the various pedagogical measures available? One conclusion that may be drawn from this study is that there is no cut-and dried method for working with pupils suffering from reading and writing disabilities. Nor is there any such thing as a standard pupil with this disability. Instead, both the type and the extent of the problem vary greatly, and individual pupils develop their own personal strategies to cope with them and take in new knowledge. Also the skills of the individual pupils vary widely, and the possibility to use and develop them is dependent on the pedagogical context he/she is part of, on the actions of the individual teacher and several other interacting environmental factors. It also becomes clear that the ’capacity’ of the individual pupil, rather than being a fixed constant, is entirely dependent on the context. There is a strong correlation between the successful development of the pupil and the sensitivity, empathy, imagination, competence and ability of the teacher to capture opportunities as they arise. Some common features of the teachers involved in this study were that they helped their pupils to structure their thinking and involved them in their own acquisition of knowledge, and that their education was focused on the process rather than the goal. The methods they used were based on both theoretical knowledge and practical experience. They were well versed in many different theories and methods, and prepared to try different things till they found the best solution for the individual pupil. The communication between teacher and pupil was the cornerstone of their tuition. The classroom situation was characterised by a mixed group of pupils where individual measures constituted a natural component. The borderline between ‘ordinary’ and remedial teachers was deliberately blurred. Instead a spirit of constructive co-operation prevailed where all available resources were used in the work with the pupils. Events that promoted progress in the individual pupil were episodes where he experienced success and stood out in a positive sense among his class-mates. On these occasions the teacher had succeeded in identifying some specific skill possessed by the pupil, and made it visible also to the pupil himself and the people surrounding him. It was also a matter of identifying and challenging the individual weaknesses of the pupil, and of making him conscious of the progress he made. The social context surrounding the pupil did, of course, play a vital part in these positive events. This study demonstrates that a thorough linguistic diagnose followed by carefully tailored tuition is far superior to other kinds of remedial tuition in enhancing the reading-and writing abilities of the individual pupil. The common method of lumping together a group of pupils with widely varying types of reading and writing disabilities into a ’remedial class’ did, by contrast, appear to be an unfortunate strategy.