In 1655 and again in 1686-1689, the Waldensians of Piedmont were massacred by the Duke of Savoy after he issued edicts forbidding the practice of their religion. The Waldensians were later followers of the medieval religious movement of the Poor of Lyons, declared heretical in 1215. The Waldensians associated with the Reformation in 1532, and thus formed a link with diverse groups of Protestants across Europe. In the periods immediately surrounding both massacres, an outpouring of publications dedicated to their plight, their history, and their religious identity appeared, a large number of which emerged in London. On both occasions, the propaganda gave rise to international sympathy and encouraged international intervention, eventually provoking the Duke to rescind the edicts that had instigated the massacres. While most contemporary scholars consider the Waldensians to have been fully absorbed into Protestantism after 1532, it is clear from the writings of both the Waldensians and their sympathizers that they considered themselves a separate entity: the inheritors of a long tradition of dissent from the Catholic Church based on their own belief in the purity of the Gospel. The Waldensian identity was based on a history of exclusion and persecution, and also on a belief that they had transmitted the true embodiment of Christianity through the centuries. The documents that were published surrounding the massacres address the legitimacy of the Waldensian identity based on centuries of practice. English and continental Protestants identified with the Waldensians, who provided ancient ties and legitimacy to their ‘new’ religion, and the Waldensians adopted that identity proudly, all the while claiming continuity. Protestants also used the Waldensians in propagandist documents, most often to justify political or religious actions and ideologies. The continuity of Waldensianism through the Reformation became crucially important for the wider umbrella of Protestantism as a legitimizing factor for the movement. This thesis investigates the claims of continuity and finds that while the Waldensians underwent a dramatic change in religious doctrine to conform to the Reformation, their belief in the continuity of their religious identity can be validated by examining religion from a socio-cultural perspective that takes aspects other than theology into consideration.

In 1655 and again in 1686-1689, the Waldensians of Piedmont were massacred by the Duke of Savoy after he issued edicts forbidding the practice of their religion. The Waldensians were later followers of the medieval religious movement of the Poor of Lyons, declared heretical in 1215. The Waldensians associated with the Reformation in 1532, and thus formed a link with diverse groups of Protestants across Europe. In the periods immediately surrounding both massacres, an outpouring of publications dedicated to their plight, their history, and their religious identity appeared, a large number of which emerged in London. On both occasions, the propaganda gave rise to international sympathy and encouraged international intervention, eventually provoking the Duke to rescind the edicts that had instigated the massacres. While most contemporary scholars consider the Waldensians to have been fully absorbed into Protestantism after 1532, it is clear from the writings of both the Waldensians and their sympathizers that they considered themselves a separate entity: the inheritors of a long tradition of dissent from the Catholic Church based on their own belief in the purity of the Gospel. The Waldensian identity was based on a history of exclusion and persecution, and also on a belief that they had transmitted the true embodiment of Christianity through the centuries. The documents that were published surrounding the massacres address the legitimacy of the Waldensian identity based on centuries of practice. English and continental Protestants identified with the Waldensians, who provided ancient ties and legitimacy to their ‘new’ religion, and the Waldensians adopted that identity proudly, all the while claiming continuity. Protestants also used the Waldensians in propagandist documents, most often to justify political or religious actions and ideologies. The continuity of Waldensianism through the Reformation became crucially important for the wider umbrella of Protestantism as a legitimizing factor for the movement. This thesis investigates the claims of continuity and finds that while the Waldensians underwent a dramatic change in religious doctrine to conform to the Reformation, their belief in the continuity of their religious identity can be validated by examining religion from a socio-cultural perspective that takes aspects other than theology into consideration.

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Notre thèse s’est donnée pour objectif de réaliser une étude systématique de l’évolution architecturale du Château et de la Citadelle de Nice dans le contexte géopolitique du duché de Savoie de la fin du XIIIe siècle au début du XVIIIe siècle, passant des ouvrages des maîtres d’œuvre médiévaux à ceux des ingénieurs de l’époque moderne. Notre recherche a porté sur les constantes et sur les différences, sur la complexité du site remodelé au cours des siècles dans une topographie contraignante toute particulière. La prise en compte de l’espace et du temps a constitué un élément déterminant dans l’étude de cet ensemble architectural imposant, à une période où l’architecture militaire a connu une évolution fulgurante.Cette place forte a été également resituée dans l’ensemble fortifié pluriel se développant de la frontière des États italiens à celle de la Provence orientale, composé d’anciennes places fortes médiévales, modernes ou de transition. Pour tenter de restituer l’image, la forme et les transformations successives du Château de Nice aujourd’hui disparu, notre travail s’est appuyé sur l’étude des textes, de l’iconographie et sur une approche archéologique comparée du site.La réalité historique du Château de Nice peut ainsi retrouver sa place dans sa globalité architecturale, temporelle et géographique. / The objective of our thesis was the systematic study of the architectural evolution of the Castle and Citadel of Nice against the geopolitical backdrop of the Duchy of Savoy from the late 13th century to the early 18th century, covering the work of the medieval master builders to those of the engineers of the modern era. Our research focused on the continuity and differences, and on the complexity of a site that was remodeled throughout the centuries in a quite particular and constrained topography. The concern for space and time was an integral component in the study of this imposing architectural estate, erected at a period when military architecture was undergoing a dramatic evolution. This fortified town was also reexamined as part of a manifold ensemble of fortifications composed of former medieval, modern or intermediate fortified towns, which expanded from the border of the Italian states to that of eastern Provence. In an attempt to revive the image, form, and successive transformations of the now destroyed Castle of Nice, our work drew on the study of texts and iconography, and on a comparative archeological study of the site.The historical reality of the Castle of Nice can therefore reclaim its architectural, temporal, and geographical unity.

In 1655 and again in 1686-1689, the Waldensians of Piedmont were massacred by the Duke of Savoy after he issued edicts forbidding the practice of their religion. The Waldensians were later followers of the medieval religious movement of the Poor of Lyons, declared heretical in 1215. The Waldensians associated with the Reformation in 1532, and thus formed a link with diverse groups of Protestants across Europe. In the periods immediately surrounding both massacres, an outpouring of publications dedicated to their plight, their history, and their religious identity appeared, a large number of which emerged in London. On both occasions, the propaganda gave rise to international sympathy and encouraged international intervention, eventually provoking the Duke to rescind the edicts that had instigated the massacres. While most contemporary scholars consider the Waldensians to have been fully absorbed into Protestantism after 1532, it is clear from the writings of both the Waldensians and their sympathizers that they considered themselves a separate entity: the inheritors of a long tradition of dissent from the Catholic Church based on their own belief in the purity of the Gospel. The Waldensian identity was based on a history of exclusion and persecution, and also on a belief that they had transmitted the true embodiment of Christianity through the centuries. The documents that were published surrounding the massacres address the legitimacy of the Waldensian identity based on centuries of practice. English and continental Protestants identified with the Waldensians, who provided ancient ties and legitimacy to their ‘new’ religion, and the Waldensians adopted that identity proudly, all the while claiming continuity. Protestants also used the Waldensians in propagandist documents, most often to justify political or religious actions and ideologies. The continuity of Waldensianism through the Reformation became crucially important for the wider umbrella of Protestantism as a legitimizing factor for the movement. This thesis investigates the claims of continuity and finds that while the Waldensians underwent a dramatic change in religious doctrine to conform to the Reformation, their belief in the continuity of their religious identity can be validated by examining religion from a socio-cultural perspective that takes aspects other than theology into consideration.

À cheval sur les Alpes occidentales, les Etats de Piémont-Savoie occupent une place majeure sur l'échiquier européen tout au long de l'époque moderne. Or, rares sont les historiens français, italiens et anglophones à se pencher sur cette monarchie en dépit du récent renouveau historiographique insufflé par les Sabaudian Studies à l'initiative de l'historien américain Matthew Vester. Aucune étude approfondie sur la construction territoriale de cet Etat secondaire (puissance moyenne) n'a été menée jusqu'à présent : les recherches françaises se restreignent le plus souvent à des études locales centrées sur les questions économiques, sociales et religieuses de la « région Savoie », tandis que les historiens italiens ont produit depuis la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle de nombreux travaux cantonnés à l'histoire politique du Piémont. Quant aux Anglo-saxons, ils ont travaillé sur de trop courtes périodes pour saisir l’ensemble des mécanismes du processus d'étatisation du Piémont-Savoie. Un renouveau historiographique est nécessaire sur cette monarchie composite fragmentée par les montagnes entre les pays de « l’au-delà » (versant français) et ceux de l’ « en-deçà » (versant italien). Si cette thèse se focalise sur le Piémont, cœur politique de cette monarchie depuis 1563, la Savoie et le comté de Nice seront aussi évoqués pour surmonter l'impasse dans laquelle se trouve la plupart des études « régionales » menées jusqu'à présent. Cette étude vise à approfondir nos connaissances sur cet Etat secondaire qui a façonné les versants français et italien des Alpes. Elle amène aussi à envisager autrement l'histoire de l'Europe à travers une histoire politique et diplomatique renouvelée d’une dynastie européenne : celle de la maison de Savoie, de sa restauration en 1559 (ses États sont occupés dans le cadre des guerres d’Italie depuis 1536) à l’annexion de Nice et de la Savoie par la France révolutionnaire à l’automne-hiver 1792-1793. Il convient de partir du postulat suivant : la construction du Piémont-Savoie dans l'Europe d'entre-deux disputée entre la France et les Habsbourg est conditionnée par la politique d'une dynastie souveraine au succès parfois mitigé, ainsi que par le jeu des grandes puissances soucieux de préserver l’équilibre européen. Trois axes seront à privilégier. Le premier est l’ambitieuse politique territoriale de la maison de Savoie qui bascule d'un versant à l'autre, puis consolide et étend son Piémont peu à peu élevé au statut de puissance italienne. Ensuite, la diplomatie de cette dynastie en quête d’indépendance vise s’affirmer face à ses voisins hégémoniques (France et Empire). Enfin, il convient de s’intéresser au(x) rôle(s) que les grandes puissances (France, Empire, Espagne et Angleterre) attribuent à cet Etat d’abord considéré comme un « territoire-tampon » empêchant tout contact direct entre la France et le Milanais espagnol, puis comme un « État-barrière » empêchant la France d’entrer en Italie et un « Etat-équilibre » contrebalançant la puissance autrichienne à la tête de la moitié de la péninsule. Cette réflexion sera prolongée par un court épilogue sur le sort de cette monarchie progressivement annexée par la France révolutionnaire jusqu’à disparaitre une seconde fois en 1802. S’achève ainsi une histoire possible du Piémont-Savoie commencée deux siècles et demi plus tôt. / .

La guerre de Succession d'Espagne, dernière guerre du règne de Louis XIV, est marquée par une série de défaites retentissantes : Blenheim (1704, Bavière), Ramillies et Turin (1706, Brabant et Piémont), Audenarde (1708, Flandre). L’approche qualifiée de « nouvelle histoire-bataille » permet de relativiser la vision traditionnelle qui explique ces défaites par le talent supérieur de John Churchill, duc de Marlborough, et du prince Eugène de Savoie, affrontant des généraux français courtisans et incompétents. Cette approche met l’événement-bataille au centre de l’étude et en aborde tous les aspects : dimensions politique, stratégique et tactique ; logistique ; techniques du combat et expériences ressenties sur le champ de bataille ; onde de choc.On constate que la guerre au début du XVIIIe siècle est à bien des égards limitée : les armées dépendent de leurs sources d’approvisionnement. Eugène et Marlborough, par leur audace et leur talent, accélèrent le rythme des opérations, mais sans renverser cet état de fait : aucune bataille n’est individuellement « décisive » et la guerre de Succession d'Espagne reste une guerre d’attrition. Les batailles sont le lieu d’une expérience du combat singulière, où se voient portées à leur paroxysme l’ensemble des formes d’affrontement et de violence que comporte la guerre de l’époque. Enfin, l’image d’une bataille se dégage lentement. Les courtisans doivent comparer nouvelles officielles, correspondances privées et gazettes pour comprendre ce qui s’est passé. Le roi mène des enquêtes pour déterminer qui a bien agi et qui a démérité. En définitive, c’est aux écrivains et aux artistes de fixer l’image que la postérité aura de ces batailles. / The war of the Spanish Succession is the last war fought by Louis XIV. It begins with a succession of astonishing defeats: Blenheim (Bavaria, 1704), Ramillies and Turin (Brabant and Piedmont, 1706), Audenarde (Flanders, 1708). The method known as “new battle-history” lets us temper the traditional vision, which claims that French have been defeated because their armies where led by courtiers that faced two military geniuses: John Churchill, duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene of Savoy. This historiographic approach focuses on the battle as an event, and seeks to treat it in all its dimensions: political, strategic and tactical aspects; logistics; how soldiers fight and what they feel; shock wave.Early eighteenth-century warfare is in many ways limited: armies highly rely on their supply sources. Eugene and Marlborough, thanks to their audacity and their talent, are able to speed up the operations, but without changing the way war is fought. There is no single “decisive” battle: the war of the Spanish Succession remains as a war of attrition. Battles are rare and formidable events where a singular fighting experience takes place; all contemporary kinds of combat and violence are to be observed. The importance of a battle is not immediately obvious. Its image takes time to come out. Versailles’ courtiers need to compare official news, private letters, French or foreign gazettes, in order to understand what happened. The king conducts investigations to identify the generals and units that have served well, and those that have not. In the end, it is writers and artists who are in charge of fixing what image of these battles will be left for posterity.

This thesis addresses four years of the turbulent history regarding a small Italian Reformed group, better known as Waldensians, that lived in the duchy of Savoy (or Italian Piedmont). It will focus on how the Swedish press presented their issues to the Swedish readership in the years 1686-1690. The source is the Ordinarie Stockholmiske Posttijdender, a newspaper that started to be published during the final years of the Thirty Years’ War, and which is the only preserved Scandinavian and Lutheran newspaper survived (until these days). Within the newspaper there are few and short reports on the Reformed groups from the Piedmont area that sometimes are in disaccord. This paper aims to see how Swedes portrayed the Waldensians through media within the Swedish Lutheran State. One main argument is that the newspaper represents a slow process of knowledge of the Waldensians. Only during the War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697), the newspaper started considering them as one of the many examples to discredit Sweden’s enemies. The Swedish newspaper is thus also understood as part of the wider European news network during the centuries of the absolutistic European States and as a tool propagating the State’s view on foreign events.

Traditionnellement perçu comme expression de la politique impériale de Marguerite d’Autriche, régente des Pays-Bas, dans le duché de Savoie dont elle était douairière en Bresse, le couvent Saint-Nicolas de Tolentin à Brou monumentalise en fait la dévotion de son défunt époux Philibert II. Le souverain avait hérité des derniers ducs de la branche aînée son inclination ignorée pour l’influente congrégation observante des Augustins de Lombardie qui participant de la création renaissante, fournit, transcrit dans un style local, le schéma claustral de Brou. L’idée maîtresse de Marguerite fut le prestige de la Renaissance, découverte au dôme Saint-Jean de Turin. A l’encontre des lectures erronées du XIXe siècle, la princesse ne s’inspira pas de Champmol. Pour son italianisme, elle confia les tombeaux et l’église au français Perréal. Seules des impossibilités pratiques l’amenèrent à recruter fin 1512 le bruxellois van Boghem. Son art et son réseau brabançons accompagnaient le tropisme ibérique de la cour de Bourgogne mais dès 1524-25, il insuffla à Brou les touches maniéristes que permettait la pénétration de la Renaissance aux Pays-Bas, plus tardive qu’en France. Le programme de l’église sotériologique emphatise la piété du duc et à un second rang, celle de la maison de Marguerite, mais aussi les devoirs du regnum, que Philibert et sa veuve exercèrent dans des pays distincts : ils culminent dans l’exercice de la justice dont le modèle est le Christ du Jugement dernier qui jadis, figurait sur le vitrail nord du transept de Brou. Marguerite signa l’œuvre : promouvant l’échange compassionnel, elle incitait autant à la conversion de chacun qu’à la prière d’intercession et à la mémoire, par-delà les siècles, de l’archiduchesse dont la naissance d’exception, impériale, avait engagé la vie et le monument d’exception. / Instead of expressing, as it is traditionally regarded, the imperial politics in Savoy of Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands, the convent Saint Nicolas of Tolentino in Brou she erected in her dower of Bresse embodies the devotion of her late husband Philibert II, duke of Savoy. The sovereign had received from the last dukes of the eldest branch that unrecognized inclination towards the soaring observant congregation of the Austin Friars of Lombardia, which joined the Renaissance and provided the claustral scheme of Brou. Margaret’s main idée was the search of the Renaissance she had discovered through the Duomo San Giovanni of Torino. Against the incorrect readings of the XIXth century, she was not inspired by Champmol. She entrusted the graves and the church of Brou to the Italianizing French artist Perréal, and only practical impediments prompted her to sign on van Boghem at the end of 1512. His brabantine Gothic’s practice and circle accorded to the Spanish tropism of the burgundian court but around 1524-1525, the arrival of the Renaissance in the Netherlands allowed him to bring mannerist accents. The iconology of Brou reveals its soteriological aim. It magnifies the duke’s devotion and at a second rank, the one of Margaret’s house, but also the duties of the regnum that Philibert and his widow both practiced in different countries. Their acme is the ministry of Justice whose reference is the Christ of the Last Judgment, which once figured on the lost northern glass window of the transept. Margaret signed the work: ruled by a will of compassion and exchange, it induced anyone both to the conversion for one’s own salvation, to intercede for the princes, and to remind through ages the memory of the archduchess, whose exceptional imperial birth had involved her unique life and memorial.

Le présent travail se propose de reconstruire la genèse et l'évolution de la frontière entre Provence et Ligurie et son impact sur les sociétés locales. L'enquête a choisi, pour zone spécifique, la vallée de la Nervia. Comprise entre les montagnes du Ponant ligure et de la région de Nice, elle a seule constitué pendant plus de cinq siècles (1262-1796) une marche entre deux entités étatiques souvent en conflit : la République de Gênes à l'est, la Provence angevine puis les domaines savoyards à l'ouest. La recherche n'a pas mobilisé moins d'un millier de documents répartis entre les archives de trois pays européens (France, Italie, Monaco). Pour le Moyen Âge, elle a mis d'abord en lumière l'importance tant économique que stratégique de la vallée. Elle a concurremment retracé les politiques menées dans la contrée par Gênes, par la Provence et par les Savoie en matière de communications routières, de production et d'échanges, comme de peuplement. Elle a autant considéré les relations complexes entre seigneurs et communautés. À cette première partie succède une analyse des sociétés locales au seizième siècle. Une attention particulière est accordée aux Doria de Dolceacqua et à leur rôle dans le développement « proto-industriel » du territoire, en tant que gros entrepreneurs dans les secteurs du vin, de l'huile d'olive et du papier. La diffusion de la Réforme dans les villages gouvernés par le duc de Savoie et le renouveau catholique post-tridentin se sont révélés comme d'autres thèmes majeurs. La dernière partie de la thèse se propose de déterminer jusqu'à quel point la présence d'une frontière influa sur la vie et sur les activités quotidiennes des habitants. / This work aims to reconstruct the genesis and the evolution of the frontier between Liguria and Provence and its impact on local societies. The specific area of research is the Nervia Valley: the only, among the valleys of western Liguria and the region of Nice, to have constituted for more than five centuries (1262-1796) a frontier between two countries often in conflict, the Republic of Genoa in the east and Angevin Provence (later Savoy) in the west. Based on a thousand documents preserved at the archives of three European states (France, Italy and Monaco), the study firstly highlights both the economic and strategic importance of the Nervia Valley; the road network, economic and settlement policies pursued in this area by Genoa, Provence and the House of Savoy; the complex relations between Lords and communities. The second part of the work investigates the local societies in the Sixteenth century. Special attention is devoted to the Doria of Dolceacqua and to their role in the industrial development of the territory as wine, olive oil and paper entrepreneurs; to the diffusion of the ideas fostered by the Reformation in the villages governed by the duke of Savoy; and to the post-Tridentine Catholic renewal. The final part tries to assess to what degree the presence of a frontier influenced the life and daily activities of the inhabitants.