Construction contracts are one of the most important tools in the construction sector. They define the various aspects, obligations and relations between each party that are necessary to reach a common expected goal. They contribute to successful completion of projects. Turkish construction companies have successfully completed many projects in domestic and international venues and gained important experience in this respect / however, they still encounter problems in application. The aim of this study was: - to analyze Yapim &amp / #272 / slerine Ait Tip S&ouml / zlesme (Standard Contract for Construction Works, YIATS) of Kamu &amp / #272 / hale Kurumu (Public Procurement Authority KIK) and F&eacute / d&eacute / ration Internationale des Ing&eacute / nieurs-Conseils (International Federation of Consulting Engineers, FIDIC) standard contract for construction / - to identify problem areas and their causes in application of contracts / - to compare YIATS and FIDIC contracts with respect to problem areas / - to analyze views, experiences and recommendations of companies about YIATS and FIDIC contracts. In this study, based on survey conducted on contract literature, questionnaire was applied to member companies of T&uuml / rk M&uuml / teahhitler Birligi (the Turkish Contractors&rsquo / Association, TMB). Applied standard contracts, Court of Cessation decisions and International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) arbitration awards were analyzed to determine problem areas. Telephonic and face-to-face interviews were performed with staff of companies for further information on their answers, their opinions and recommendations on problem areas. Additionally, hypotheses were tested: to determine the effect of existence of clauses on exposure of contractors to consequences of problems emerged in execution phase of contract / to analyze relationship between problems encountered in FIDIC or YIATS and financial, temporal and non-compliance problem areas / to analyze effect of cost determination method on emergence of problems related to these areas. These studies revealed main problem areas as: financial, temporal and non-compliance issues.

Quel étrange personnage que le commissionnaire de transport ! Cet acteur majeur du monde des transports est à l’origine de nombreuses controverses doctrinales et d’un abondant contentieux judiciaire. Professionnel chargé d’organiser le transport des marchandises pour le compte d’un donneur d’ordre, il supporte une double responsabilité, de son fait personnel et du fait de tous les prestataires qu’il se substitue dans l’exécution de sa mission. Si le recours à la commission de transport est très fréquent, c’est parce qu’elle offre de garanties intéressantes aux clients, notamment la prise en charge intégrale de l’organisation du transport avec les risques qu’elle comporte. Cependant, en analysant attentivement la jurisprudence de ces dernières années, on a pu observer que la responsabilité de la plupart des commissionnaires de transport a été très lourdement appréciée. Le motif souvent retenu étant la faute personnelle, facilement assimilée à la faute lourde par les juges, avec pour conséquence la perte du bénéfice des limitations d’indemnités pour ce dernier. Que recouvre précisément la faute du commissionnaire de transport ? Sur ce point, on a assisté à une jurisprudence inflationniste notamment sur le devoir de conseil, les contours de cette notion n’étant pas clairement définis. La situation était devenue si préoccupante que les pouvoirs publics ont cru bon d’intervenir à travers deux réformes majeures. D’abord par la loi du 8 décembre 2009 avec l’introduction du nouvel article L.133-8 du Code de commerce, qui conditionne dorénavant l’exclusion des limitations d’indemnités à la preuve d’une faute dolosive ou inexcusable du commissionnaire de transport ou du transporteur. Ensuite par l’adoption du contrat type commission de transport (en vigueur depuis 2013). Ce contrat type, fruit d’une longue et laborieuse négociation entre les professionnels de ce secteur, encadre sérieusement la responsabilité personnelle du commissionnaire de transport. Comment appréhender alors la faute du commissionnaire de transport à la lumière de ces réformes ? C’est à cette question essentielle que ce travail va tenter d’apporter des éléments de réponses en s’appuyant sur les textes en vigueur et de la pratique observée dans les prétoires. / What a strange character the freight forwarder (Agent) is ! This leading player of the world of transport is the source of several doctrinal debates and implies a plentiful judicial dispute. Professional appointed to organize the transport of the goods on behalf of a contractor, he bears a double responsibility, of his personal fact and because of all the persons receiving benefits for whom he substitutes itself in the execution of his mission. If the appeal to the committee of transport is very frequent, it is due to the interesting guarantees it offers to the customers, in particular the complete coverage of the organization of the transport with the risks which it involves. However, by carefully analyzing the jurisprudence of recent years, it has been observed that the responsibility for most freight forwarders was very heavily estimated. The often held motive being the personal fault easily likened to the serious offence by the judges, involving the loss of the profit of the limitations of compensations for the latter. What does exactly the fault of the forwarder cover? On this point, we attended an inflationary jurisprudence in particular on the duty of advice, the outlines of this notion not being clearly defined. The situation had become so worrisome as public authorities saw fit to intervene through two fundamental reforms. At first by the law of December 8th, 2009 with the introduction of the new article L.133-8 of the Commercial law, which conditions from now on the exclusion of the limitations of compensations in the proof of a dolosive or unforgivable fault of the agent of transport or the carrier. And then by the adoption of the standard commission contract of transport (in force since 2013). This standard contract, fruit of a long and laborious negotiation between the professionals of this sector, frames seriously the personal liability of the forwarder. How to identify then the fault of the forwarder in the light of these reforms? It is to this essential question that this work is going to try to bring elements of answers based on the current texts and the practice observed in the courts of justice.

Contract for work in international construction projects (Summary) The present master thesis analyses the contemporary practice in the field of making contracts for work in international construction projects. Its goal is to answer the following research question: is it possible to use the new Czech trust concept as a payment instrument under the most used FIDIC standard form of contract - Conditions of Contract for Construction First Edition 1999 (better known as "Red Book")? The thesis is divided into three chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of the new trust concept: from construction projects through construction contracts for work to payment conditions. The opening part of Chapter One focuses on construction projects. It defines their characteristic features and describes the main types of their management, organization and contractual relationships. Next, the chapter discusses the international character of construction projects and concentrates on situations involving a conflict of laws. Party autonomy and the choice of law rule, that empowers parties to designate the applicable law to their contractual relationship, are assumed to be fundamental principles of contract formation in international construction projects. This part of the chapter is concluded by the proposition that...

隨著工商社會的繁榮，以往消費時支付工具大多為使用現金；但隨著信用卡的發明，以及其特約商店的普及，現代人在消費時以信用卡來代替現金的使用者漸多。使用信用卡對消費者而言，有諸多的便利，然對發卡機構而言，如何擴大市場佔有率，吸引顧客，為其行銷策略上重要的考量；但在另一方面，接受申請者的申請與否，接受之後如何管理，亦發卡機構經營上的重要的課題。 但隨著信用卡使用的普及，詐欺的事件也時有所聞，發卡機構除了本身正常營運風險的損失，又須面臨詐欺事件的防範；對於企業的經營者而言，又增加許多成本的支出。持卡人不繳納發卡機構所代墊其消費金額時，發卡機構在催討無效後，只有訴諸於法律途徑來獲清償。這從發卡前的徵信、使用中的控管、詐欺的防止以及帳款的催收，實為當前發卡機構經營管理的重要課題。 本文之研究目的，旨在瞭解現行信用卡管理之問題，並吸取國外之經驗，參酌現行管理之制度，就現行作業之徵信、信用授權、帳款催收、詐欺的防止及定型化契約等方面提出信用卡管理上之建議，作為發卡機構之參考。 第一章 緒論 第一節 研究動機及目的 第二節 研究範圍及限制 第三節 研究大綱 第二章 信用卡之意義、功能、種類、發展與業務體系 第一節 信用卡的意義、功能、種類 第二節 信用卡之發展 第三節 國內信用卡之發展 第四節 信用卡的業務體系 第三章 信用授信與帳款催收管理之問題 第一節 信用授信 第二節 帳款催收 第四章 信用授權與詐欺管理之問題 第一節 信用授權 第二節 詐 欺 第五章 定型化契約 第一節 定型化契約的意義 第二節 定型化契約的法律效力 第三節 行政規則下的信用卡定型化契約 第六章 結論與建議 第一節 結論 第二節 建議

由於生產技術日益精進，商品製造過程繁複，功能亦趨於複雜，導致商品潛在危險性昇高，加上產業結構多層化及行銷策略廣告化，以致責任體系模糊不清，而企業經營者更挾其鉅力萬鈞的經濟優勢，利用誇大不實的商業廣告，麻醉、鈍化消費者選購商品的能力，或因標示不實，欺騙、誤導消費者的認知，並產生種種危險，形成對於個人生命、身體、健康或財產上的威脅，造成消費者與企業經營者間的糾紛。由於企業經營者不但擁有雄厚人力、財力及資訊優勢，加上今日的生產過程，多具有高度技術性與高度複雜性，經濟上弱勢的消費者在私法體系中，無論在事前消費資訊獲得或事後爭議救濟過程上，並未擁有對等的地位，一旦在消費過程中遭遇到健康上或財產上的損害，很難循傳統之民事法律規範獲得有效救濟，也因為不容易獲得法律上的救濟，使得消費者對於維護自己的權益遭遇到困難，而怨聲四起。 因此先進國家無不以立法、司法及行政措施，來保護消費者應有之權利，透過政府公權力，提供一個便捷的管道，讓消費者得加以諮詢或申訴所遭遇到的消費爭議。台灣在消費者保護法（以下簡稱消保法）公布實施後，在立法上已經形成一個制度化的消費者保護體系，其中最特殊的就是設立消費者保護官（以下簡稱消保官）制度，當消費爭議發生時，透過申訴、調解程序，幫助消費者與企業經營者協商，以維護消費者之基本權益。 依北歐國家的法律規定，保護官（Ombudsman）指保護一般市民免受政治或行政權濫用之害，並為其權利守護神之官吏而言。北歐四國，即瑞典、挪威、丹麥及芬蘭，均只有一位消保官，且均為政府所任命，獨立行使職權，積極介入調查影響市場交易習慣之案件，以保護消費者權益，對良好市場交易習慣之建立，貢獻良多。瑞典係第一個成立消保官之國家，距今已有近40年之歷史，其雖僅有一位，然其位高、權重、受人敬重，主導整個國家之消費者政策及市場交易習慣，且整個消費者總署均為其輔佐幕僚。反觀我國，消保官設立至今已逾12年，然有關消保官之法規，除消保法之外，僅有消保官任用及職掌辦法、消保官執行職務應行注意事項、指揮消保官行使職權要點，是否符合行政程序法之規定，不無疑義。而各地方政府消保官之設置單位並不一致，有設於府本部，有設於法規會或法制室，亦有設於主秘室、建設局、企劃室或行政室等，此不僅反應消保官之定位不明，且導致消保官有將無兵，影響消費者保護工作之推展。目前包括中央及地方已有44位，行政上不僅無輔佐之幕僚人員，且須受上級長官之指揮監督，與北歐各國實不可同日而語。誠然兩者之任用資格及職掌並不完全相同，但會造成此種結果，實與整個國家之制度設計有相當大之關係。 本論文將先就北歐四國消保官設置之沿革、地位、運作、管轄、申訴及權限等作一簡介，其後論述我國消保官制度，俾比較兩者之異同，分析其優劣，以作為改進我國制度之參考。消保官之設置，既係消保法立法特色之一，亦為能否充分發揮保護消費者功能之主要關鍵所在。自第一位消保官就任以來，至今已逾12年，究竟消保官之制度與當初之設計是否吻合？該制度究竟是否有存在之必要？又如有存在之必要，是否有未盡完善之處？又如有未盡完善之處，究應如何改善？為期能有全盤及深入瞭解，爰就我國現行消保官制度之相關問題予以探討，並試擬消保官制度未來應發展之方向。

Wie sollen Rechtssysteme auf Regeln reagieren, die Provider von Netzgemeinschaften wie Facebook oder World of Warcraft Nutzenden auferlegen? Das positive Recht gibt hierauf keine verlässliche Antwort. Erst ein Verständnis der Legitimität der Regeln ermöglicht ein Austarieren des Verhältnisses zwischen den Regelwerken von Netzgemeinschaften und Rechtssystemen. Nach Literaturstimmen sollen die Regeln durch außerrechtliche Mechanismen (z.B. direktdemokratische Verfahren), eine gerichtliche Kontrolle nach verfassungsrechtlichen Kriterien oder Zivilverfassungen legitimiert werden. Es ist aber zweifelhaft, ob Netzgemeinschaften legitime außerrechtliche Mechanismen schaffen können, ob sie wie Staaten behandelt werden sollten und ob Zivilverfassungen entstehen werden. Die Arbeit schlägt ein alternatives Modell vor: Im deutschen Zivilrecht zeichnet sich ein Legitimitätsmodell für private Regeln ab, das auf Regeln von Netzgemeinschaften anwendbar ist und als transnationale Schablone dienen kann. Danach werden die Regeln durch die Zustimmung und das Wohl der Nutzenden legitimiert. Letzteres gewährleistet ein Ausbeutungsschutz der Nutzenden in Form einer gerichtlichen Kontrolle. Die Anwendung des Modells führt zu folgenden Erkenntnissen: 1. Geschriebene Regeln sind schwach durch Zustimmung legitimiert. Eine gerichtliche Kontrolle nach vertragsrechtlichen Kriterien (bei Regelungen des Austauschverhältnisses zwischen Providern und Nutzenden) oder grundrechtlichen Kriterien (bei Verhaltensregeln) verleiht ihnen zusätzliche Legitimität. Die Kontrollintensität hängt von der Höhe des Ausbeutungsrisikos und der Existenz von legitimen außerrechtlichen Mechanismen ab. 2. Code-Regeln (z.B. Newsfeed- Algorithmen) sind auch nur schwach durch Zustimmung legitimiert. Gerichtliche Kontrollmöglichkeiten, die sie gegenüber Nutzenden legitimieren, müssen noch geschaffen werden. 3. Geschriebene und Code-Regeln sind illegitim gegenüber Nichtnutzenden, weil sie nicht auf deren Zustimmung beruhen. / How should legal systems respond to rules that virtual community providers such as Facebook or World of Warcraft impose on users? To answer this question, we must look beyond black letter law. Only an understanding of the legitimacy of these rules allows us to balance out their relationship with legal systems. Current scholarship theorizes their legitimacy as follows: Non-legal mechanisms (e.g. direct voting systems), judicial review according to constitutional principles, or digital civil constitutions may legitimize the rules. Yet, three points remain doubtful: whether virtual communities can develop legitimate self-governance mechanisms, whether they should be treated like states, and whether digital civil constitutions will effectively emerge. This work proposes an alternative legitimacy model: German private law reflects a legitimacy model for private rule-making applicable to rules of virtual communities which can serve as a transnational template. This model suggests that the rules can derive legitimacy from two sources: user consent and the common good of users, the latter ensured by judicial review protecting users against exploitation. This leads to the following key findings: 1. Written rules of virtual communities are weakly legitimized by user consent but derive additional legitimacy from judicial review. Contract law standard applies to rules that govern the bilateral exchange relationship between providers and users. General rules of conduct for users are checked against fundamental rights. The required intensity of review depends on the risk of user exploitation and the presence of legitimate self-governance mechanisms. 2. Rules embedded in computer code (e.g. newsfeed algorithms) are poorly legitimized by user consent. Judicial review procedures legitimizing them towards users still need to be established. 3. Both written rules and rules embedded in computer code are not legitimate towards non-users since non-users have not consented to them.