Transitional justice is an essential part of the peacebuilding process, as the need to obtain justice for victims of conflict has been recognised as imperative when constructing peace. Subsequent to the established role of justice, the debate on approaches to justice has emerged. A debate concerned with whether restorative or retributive justice is suitable for the context, as the two are frequently presented as exclusive alternatives in academic debates.   Restorative justice favours inclusion and participation as instruments to repair harm caused by crimes, while retributive justice favours accountability through criminal punishment. This study, aspires to influence the discussion by analysing if the debate on restorative versus retributive justice is present in practice and if there is a trend of implementing restorative approaches to justice in this context. The objective of this study is relevant for transitional justice as there is a debate among scholars on the applicability of restorative justice in transitional societies.    The method of structured, focused comparison is applied to detect which mechanisms are implemented in four Sub-Saharan African post-conflict countries. The countries were selected based on their similarities, as it allows for a focused comparison. The theoretical framework adopted is the TARR-model. The elements of the model are applied as a basis for the structured, focused comparison. Further, the model is used to detect restorative and retributive mechanisms and to assess the restorative basis of transitional justice. The model was selected, as it is the only restorative value-based model available.   The findings detected the approaches to not be exclusive alternatives in practice. Further, a trend of fully restorative approaches to justice was not found in the four cases. However, retributive mechanisms were found to be contributing to restorative outcomes. A trend of combining the two approaches was detected. It is, therefore suggested, future research is conducted on hybrid approaches to justice, local ownership and traditional mechanisms.   Keywords: Restorative Justice, Retributive Justice, Sub-Saharan Africa, Transitional Justice.

La ville africaine s'étale et intègre les villages environnants en devenant métropole. Que ce soit le mouvement des ruraux vers les villes ou bien de la ville vers la campagne, ces phénomènes inquiètent les spécialistes. La pensée traditionnelle du monde qui opposait ville-campagne, ville-village, ville-brousse, n'est plus d'actualité. Les réalités du territoire sont devenues autres. Quels sont les outils qui nous permettent de lire ces nouvelles réalités? Comment opérer ce changement de «lunettes» que nous propose Bernardo Secchi pour lire et écrire la «ville contemporaine»?Pour nos recherches, nous considérons Ouagadougou comme un véritable observatoire. L'objectif est d'apprendre des lieux d'initiatives où se construisent de nouveaux modes de vie dans des dynamiques imprévues. Aujourd'hui, la capitale burkinabé est caractérisée par une double identité foncière. Une organisation foncière publique importée de la pensée coloniale dite « lotie », et une organisation foncière informelle issue de la culture villageoise dite « non-lotie ». À force de coexistence, le développement de métropole n'a t-il pas engendré d'autres phénomènes, avec des degrés et des intensités variés de planification et de spontanéité? La rencontre des deux modes opératoires ne définit pas un rapport dual, mais un intervalle. Dans ce contexte, le « village » entendu dans sa dimension sociale et communautaire devient, en milieu urbain, générateur d'espaces communs. Les structures communautaires testent les possibles et inventent la métropole au quotidien : elles rendent flexible toute forme de planification. Ainsi, nous formulons l'hypothèse que l'étude de la « Métropole-village(s)» de Ouagadougou peut amener à de nouvelles connaissances permettant la création d'outils de compréhension des territoires urbanisés contemporains / The African city spreads and incorporates the surrounding villages becoming metropolis. Whether the migration from rural to urban or from the city to the countryside, these phenomena became a concern for specialists. Traditional thinking of the world that opposed city-countryside, city-village, city-bush, is no longer valid. Territory's realities became different. What are the tools that allow us to read these new realities? How can we proceed to a change of "glasses" that Bernardo Secchi is proposing, in order to read and write the " contemporary city "?For our research, we consider Ouagadougou as a true observatory. The objective is to learning places of initiatives which build new lifestyles in unexpected dynamics. Today, the capital of Burkina Faso is characterized by a dual identity of the land. Public land organization imported from the colonial thinking called " lotie " (subdivided area) and an informal tenure arrangements after the village culture called “non-lotie” (non-subdivided area). To force to coexistence, hasn't the metropolis generated new phenomena, with different degrees and intensities of planification and spontaneity? The meeting of the two procedures does not define a dual report, but an interval. In this context, the "village" understood in its social and community dimension becomes an urban environment generating shared spaces. Communal structures are questioning what is possible and redefine what a metropolis is every day: they make flexible any form of planning. Thus, we hypothesize that the study of "City-village(s)” of Ouagadougou may lead to new knowledge to the creation of tools for understanding contemporary urbanized territories

Lack of water access is an issue of global importance. The WHO and UNICEF’s Joint Monitoring Program estimated that in 2015 71% of the world’s population used a safely managed drinking water source and 89% of the world’s population used an improved water source within a 30-minute round trip of home. Madagascar’s national statistics lags far behind these global statistics with 54% of the population using improved water sources, 31% using unimproved water sources, and 16% with no service at all. This research studied water access in Madagascar with self-supply Pitcher Pumps attached on hand-driven tubewells. The term self-supply in this context refers to privately owned and constructed water sources that are not financially subsidized by governments or non-governmental organizations. Self-supply is typically seen in the form of private wells in rural areas of developed countries like the United States or in developing countries in the form of shallow wells or rain water harvesting. Self-supply Pitcher Pumps are common along the coast in Madagascar in areas where the first aquifer is shallow and in sandy soil. They are ubiquitous at the site of this study, the port city of Tamatave. People in Madagascar have benefited from increased access to affordable water because of Pitcher Pumps for decades, however, there are health risks associated with consuming the water due to lead and microbial contamination of the water. This study sought to improve microbial water quality of Malagasy Pitcher Pumps by testing two different types of well head protection: 1) a partially buried short 100-mm diameter PVC pipe collar placed around the rising main, and 2) a 50-cm diameter, circular concrete apron. The study was a mixed design experiment that allowed for between subject comparisons of wells over the same time period and for within subject comparisons of the same well sites with different types of well head protection. Wells were selected for the study that had a high risk of localized pathways of contamination and low risks of aquifer contamination relative to other wells in the area. Membrane filtration was used for microbial water quality measurements and detected a wide spectrum of bacteria grown at 37◦ C. In this study, data from 690 water samples of 44 wells (with and without well protection added) over a 9 months period was analyzed. Weak but statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) and marginally statistically significant (0.05 < p ≤ 0.10) correlations were found between bacteria concentrations and antecedent rainfall depth for wells with aprons but not for wells with a pipe collar or no protection. No statistically significant relationship was found between bacteria concentrations in wells and type of well head protection. The lack of reduction in bacteria concentrations with well head protection is likely due to the high density of on-site sanitation near the wells and the relatively shallow water table. Generally, study results indicate that there is a wide variation of bacteria concentrations both from the same well across many months and between wells that are near each other. The second observation is consistent with other studies of wells in the area. It appears as if the best solution for improving water quality from Malagasy Pitcher Pumps to a potable level is point-of-use treatment of the water.

La présente étude a pour but d'analyser le discours féminin francophone dans les textes d'Assia Dejbar,de Calixthe Beyala, d'Aminata Sow Fall et de Nedjma. L'intitulé de la recherche rend compte de deux concepts majeurs: l'interlangue et la radicalisation. Nous fondons notre réflexion en trois grandes paries, la première, définit l'interlangue et interroge l'existence ou non d'objectifs communs à son utilisation par les femmes romancières. La deuxième partie, analyse à travers de nouvelles approches théoriques et critiques sur la langue, les romans Nulle part dans la maison de mon père, Femme nue, femme noire, La Grève des bàttu et L'Amande. La troisième partie quant à elle, traite de la notion de radicalisation par la mise en évidence de la langue du corps, reflétée dans l'ensemble de l'écriture. La lecture des textes littéraires a permis de les scinder en deux catégories. D'une part, il y a les romans qui fustigent et luttent au moyen d'une langue pudique et réservée, et, d'autre part, ceux qui dénoncent et s'affirment, à travers une langue extrêmement transgressive et violente. / The present study aims at analyzing the female speech in the texts of Assia Dejbar, Calixthe Beyala, Aminata Sow Fall and Nedjma. The title of the research accounts for two major concepts: interlanguage and radicalization. We base our reflection on three main bets, the first one, defines the interlanguage and questions the existence or not of objectives common to its use by women novelists. The second part, analyzes through new theoretical and critical approaches on language, novels Nowhere in my father's house, Naked woman, black woman, The strike of the battu and the almond. The third part deals with the notion of radicalization by emphasizing the language of the body, reflected in the whole of writing. The reading of the literary texts allowed to divide them into two categories. On the one hand, there are novels that lash and fight by means of a modest and reserved language, and, on the other hand, those who denounce and affirm themselves, through an extremely transgressive and violent language.

abstract: Energy poverty is pervasive in sub-Saharan Africa. Nigeria, located in sub-Saharan West Africa, is the world's seventh largest oil exporting country and is a resource-rich nation. It however experiences the same levels of energy poverty as most of its neighboring countries. Attributing this paradox only to corruption or the "Dutch Disease", where one sector booms at the expense of other sectors of the economy, is simplistic and enervates attempts at reform. In addition, data on energy consumption is aggregated at the national level via estimates, disaggregated data is virtually non-existent. Finally, the wave of decentralization of vertically integrated national utilities sweeping the developing world has caught on in sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known of the economic and social implications of these transitions within the unique socio-technical system of the region's electricity sector, especially as it applies to energy poverty. This dissertation proposes a complex systems approach to measuring and mitigating energy poverty in Nigeria due to its multi-dimensional nature. This is done via a three-fold approach: the first section of the study delves into causation by examining the governance institutions that create and perpetuate energy poverty; the next section proposes a context-specific minimum energy poverty line based on field data collected on energy consumption; and the paper concludes with an indicator-based transition management framework encompassing institutional, economic, social, and environmental themes of sustainable transition within the electricity sector. This work contributes to intellectual discourse on systems-based mitigation strategies for energy poverty that are widely applicable within the sub-Saharan region, as well as adds to the knowledge-base of decision-support tools for addressing energy poverty in its complexity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Sustainability 2015

abstract: Armed violence is a contemporary global challenge especially in the developing world. It impacts immigration policies locally and internationally. Uganda experienced a twenty-four year -long civil armed conflict, which the president of Uganda declared ended in 2008. Following government instruction, displaced persons have been returning home since then. Despite this official closure, in the course of resettlement, youth specific needs and concerns have been ignored. Female youth have been the most affected due to the interlocking nature of their undervalued gender, age, and marital and reproductive statuses. Despite the complexity of female youth’s social location, research and frameworks about armed violence have focused on men as the perpetuators, marginalizing the impact armed conflict has on young women. Using the case of northern Uganda, this dissertation draws on feminist and indigenous epistemologies to examine the experiences of formerly displaced female youth. First, I deconstruct the western dominant construction of the stages of human growth and development including childhood, youth and adulthood. In this research, I prioritize local perspectives on human development; emphasizing the ambiguity of the concept youth, highlighting its age and gendered limited applicability to northern Uganda. I also examine the local understanding of armed conflict centering its forms and causes. Further, I explore the challenges female youth face, and the strategies they adopt to cope in situations of distress. I argue that studying formerly displaced female youth from their standpoint is critical since female youth have been marginalized in previous research and programs with gender-neutral perspectives. They thus provide a new perspective to armed violence given their multi dimensional standpoint. Female youth have different needs and concerns, which may not feature in mainstream programming largely informed by traditional male dominated systems and structures. Young women’s experiences thus deserve to be acknowledged if female youth are to benefit from the post-conflict reconstruction phase. To fulfill this objective, I used qualitative methods of data collection and analysis. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Gender Studies 2016

In this paper we investigate entrepreneurship in the informal sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Using data from the World Bank we examine the motivational antecedents for why individuals become self-employed within the informal sector. We build on research focusing primarily on data from the formal sector to generate a number of testable hypotheses regarding individual-level predictors of opportunity status. We test our hypotheses using multiple probit model regression analyses. Our results indicate that opportunity-driven entrepreneurs comprise a large portion ofinformal sector in Sub-Saharan Africa and suggest that there are important differences between the antecedents of entrepreneurship in the informal sector in the region and the findings of research focused on the formal sectors of developed countries. Despite a number of limitations, our paper sheds important light on an interesting and comparatively understudied topic but leaves much room for future development.

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le champ des études sur la réception d'une part et des travaux sur le rôle des médias dans l'émancipation des minorités. tel qu'on peut le retrouver dans un courant des Cultural studies d'autre part.D'un point de vue théorique, j'ai réalisé une revue des principaux travaux de réception avec une attention portée particulièrement à la notion de décodage et à la construction des identités. La démarche empirique m'a conduit auprès des immigrés subsahariens et leurs descendants en banlieue parisienne, impliqués dans un processus transculturel de construction de soi. Et je me suis notamment appuyé sur les récits de vie pour observer leur relation complexe avec les mass médias. D'une manière générale, l'image de l'immigré et de leurs descendants renvoyée par les contenus médiatiques comporte selon eux une forte charge négative par conséquent nuisible à leur expression citoyenne. Les attentes d'une meilleure représentativité ethnique sont fortes et à défaut d'une alliance avec les médias de masse dans leurs aspirations, internet et les réseaux sociaux semblent constituer aujourd'hui une alternative pertinente. Internet en tant que média leur apporte une meilleure offre en matière d'informations, de solutions de visibilité et surtout une interactivité qui fait d'eux des récepteurs complètement actifs. L'histoire de ces trajectoires existentielles interpelle en effet la société en général et les médias de masse en particulier sur la nécessité d'accompagner la construction des identités dans un monde en grande mutation / This thesis deals with the topic of reception studies on the one hand and works on the role of the media in the emancipation of minorities on the other hand. Cultural studies which conceive the uses of the media as spaces From a theoretical point of view, I have made a review of the main works on reception, with particular attention given to the notion of decoding and the construction of identity. The empirical approach led me to treat sub Saharan immigrants and their descendants in the Parisian suburbs involved in a transcultural process of self-construction. I notably relied on their life stories to observe their complex relationship with the mass media. In general, the image of the immigrants and their descendants reflected in the media includes a strong negative connotation which is, consequently, harmful to their expression as citizens. Expectations of a better ethnic representativeness are strong, and, lacking an alliance with the media in these expectations, the Internet and the social media seem to constitute today a relevant alternative. The Internet is a more useful tool for them in terms of information, solutions of visibility and is especially an interactivity which makes them active receptors.The story of these existential trajectories calls out to society in general and the media in particular on the necessity of accompanying the construction of identities in an ever-changing world.

Développer de nouveaux produits pour les consommateurs à très faibles revenus d’Afrique Subsaharienne est un enjeu majeur pour les entreprises mondialisées. Un enjeu qui relève de la relation interculturelle comme l'affirme le courant du "Bottom of the Pyramid" (BoP). Une relation interculturelle que le courant essentialiste explique par la réduction de la distance entre des variables d'innovation. La thèse adopte une perspective constructiviste de la relation interculturelle dans le processus d'innovation: la différence naît de la rencontre. En effet, l'écosystème BoP est très dynamique et hautement ambivalent. Nous cherchons à savoir si dans cet écosystème aimer, comme modèle culturel de la dynamique de la relation, est un modèle plus robuste de la relation interculturelle que le modèle de la distance. L'étude de cas a pour objet le développement d'une solution de paiement mobile dans une banque mondialisée pour des marchés d'Afrique Subsaharienne. L'analyse des données est faite grâce à une grille qui se fonde sur la "Practice Based View" et les théories de l'action. Malgré de bonnes idées, des ressources à foisons et des leaders forts, les données font apparaître le défaut de résolution efficace de fortes ambivalences. Nous écartons la réduction de la distance comme variable explicative majeure, car plus les obstacles s'accumulent, plus le dialogue, qui résout la distance selon le courant essentialiste, est évité. Par un raisonnement abductif, qui s'appuie sur une étude de la dynamique de la relation dans ses dimensions cognitives et affectives culturalisées, nous montrons qu'aimer est cette relation hautement intégrative qui fait défaut dans cet environnement spécifique. / New product development for the markets of the very low-income customer of Sub-Saharan Africa is a major stake for globalized companies. This stake pertains to intercultural relationship as claimed by the scholars belonging to the "Bottom of the Pyramid" (BOP) stream. The essentialist current explains intercultural relationship by the reduction of distance between the variable of innovation (resources commitment, capabilities of actors, senior management involvement). This thesis adopts a constructivist perspective of the intercultural relationship in the innovation process: the difference emerges out of the encounter. Indeed, the BoP ecosystem is very dynamic and highly ambivalent. We want to know if in this ecosystem, love as a cultural model of the dynamics of the relationship, is a more robust model of intercultural relationship than the model of distance.The case study has for object the development of a solution of mobile payment in a global bank for Sub-Saharan African markets. Data analysis is done through a grid based on the "Practice Based View" and action theory. Despite good ideas, extensive resources and strong leaders, the data reveal strong ambivalences solved inefficiently. We close the option of distance reduction as main explanation for the more obstacles arise in the project, the more the dialogue, that is supposed to solve distance, is avoided. By abductive reasoning, based on a study of the dynamics of the relationship in its culturalized cognitive and affective dimensions, we show that loving is this highly integrative relationship that is lacking in this specific ecosystem.

The objective of this study was to examine three well designs: drilled wells (20-30 m deep), closed dug wells (>5 m deep), and hand-dug open wells (<5 m deep), to determine the water quality for improving access to safe and clean water in rural communities. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and turbidity, were used to assess the water quality of 97 wells. Additionally, the study looked at the microflora diversity of the water, focusing on potential pathogens using outgrowth, PCR, and genome sequencing for 10 wells. Concentrations of TC for the open dug wells (4 x 10(4) CFU/100 mL) were higher than the drilled (2 x 10(3) CFU/100 mL) and closed dug wells (3 x 10(3) CFU/100 mL). E. coli concentration for drilled and closed dug wells was <22 MPN (most probable number)/100 mL, but higher for open wells (>154 MPN/100 mL). The drilled well turbidity (11 NTU) was within the standard deviation of the closed well (28 NTU) compared to open dug wells (49 NTU). Drilled and closed wells had similar microbial diversity. There were no significant differences between drilled and closed dug wells. The covering and lining of hand-dug wells should be considered as an alternative to improve access to safe and clean water in rural communities.