The accurate and rapid detection of clinically relevant analytes at the point-of-care (POC) is a crucial element for the increase in our quality of life. There are multiple detection techniques for sensing a target analyte in biological samples. However, electrochemical sensors excel because of their versatility, accuracy and sensitivity. Among the many challenges in the fabrication of electrochemistry-based POC sensors, the miniaturization of the working electrodes is one of the most difficult to overcome. Decreasing the size of the sensors will result in less electroactive surface area (ESA) and, therefore, lower sensitivity. Thus, the design of miniaturized electrodes with high ESA is desired in this research field. The methodology developed in our laboratory to accomplish this goal is based on the fabrication of microstructured gold electrodes (MSEs) by depositing, via sputtering, a gold thin-film onto a pre-stressed polystyrene substrate masked with adhesive vinyl stencils and thermally shrinking the substrate at high temperatures (135-160 °C). In my thesis work, I developed cost-effective sensitive electrochemical platforms using only bench-top approaches. First, the ESA and, thus, the sensitivity of the MSEs were enhanced by using a simple and rapid nano-roughening approach. The ESA of MSEs was increased 4x by applying high voltage pulsing in sulfuric acid. The resulting electrodes possessed high anti-fouling capabilities and excellent response toward the enzyme-free detection of glucose with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.62 mM in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and ascorbic acid. Furthermore, the fabrication cost of the MSEs electrodes was decreased by 5x by replacing the sputtering deposition step with a cost-effective solution-based electroless deposition technique. In this case, the PS substrates were coated with a polydopamine adhesion layer and noble metal films (copper, silver and gold) were subsequently plated. Not only the cost of the gold electrode was substantially reduced but, due to the intrinsic roughness of the surface, the MSEs electrodes obtained via electroless deposition showed a higher ESA than those made via sputtering. Furthermore, the developed electroless method was extended for the fabrication of paper-based sensing devices. The sensing versatility of these surfaces was demonstrated by electrochemically detecting mercury with a 0.27 ppb LOD and by sensing thiophenol via surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). The MSEs electrodes fabricated via electroless deposition were subjected to the nano-roughening technique to generate affordable and high ESA electrodes. These platforms were used to design enzyme-based biosensors to accurately detect glucose and urea in complex samples. Glucose was detected in four different types of wine, with matrix interference measured below 10%, and in human serum, with a measured concentration that was not statistically different from that obtained from commercially available biosensors. Urea was detected in human urine and plasma with matrix interferences measured to be below 8% in both cases. We envision that the fabrication techniques developed in this thesis will rapidly grow in the scientific community for the prompt and accurate design of POC electrochemical devices. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

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This study investigates whether there are differences in the Swedish Armed Forces' gender equality work before and after the introduction of gender-neutral conscription. Previous research indicates that military organizations often encounter resistance in gender equality work, due to deeply entrenched norms. Theoretically grounded in the concept of gender as a social construct and a top-down perspective within implementation theory, this study focuses on three critical factors for successful implementation: clarity, participation, and motivation. The research is structured as a case study. The pre-conscription period spans from the years 2014 to 2017, while the post-conscription period covers the years 2018 to 2022. The study employs qualitative text analysis of the Swedish Armed Forces' official documents, including regulatory letters, action plans, and annual reports. It examines three levels within the organization: policy formulation, decision-makers, and the operational level. The findings reveal differences in gender equality work between the two time periods with policy formulation and decision-making levels, indicating a decline in critical factors following the introduction of conscription. However, this does not seem to have impacted the practical implementation of gender equality measures, as evidenced at the operational level. The study suggests that other informal factors may influence gender equality work, warranting further research in this area.

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