Atlantic Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is a highly value specie that was endangered during the turn of the century by overfishing. Due to the massive resource exploitation, a recovery plan was implemented by the International Commission for the conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). That plan enforces three major rules: to establish a fishing quota, to impose a closed fishing seasons and to fix minimum catching size (30kg). With the aim to control and improve as much as possible the fattening process turns necessary develop tools to help tuna ranchers. These tools will help them to improve tuna production efficiency in sea cages. Moreover, it is necessary the improvement of fishing quota control mechanisms. Acoustic techniques have been revealed as an efficient biomass control tool in aquaculture cages (mainly to salmon and gilthead sea bream). However, underwater acoustic methods (that are used to remote sensing of fish schools in free water) are not usually applied in sea cages. Nowadays, production control, in tuna fattening cages, has made either by manual sampling or by the use of stereoscopic cameras system. The former, it can cause damages to fishes and increases costs to ranchers. The latter, it is non-intrusive to tuna but it is affected by depth and water turbidity and it is limited by camera field of vision. A feasibility study of the use of acoustic techniques in tuna fattening cages to production control as well as to evaluate tuna behavior in captivity is presented In this thesis. Research and development of techniques together with experimental setups used are limited by tuna size and cage volume. General information about Bluefin tuna and their farming in sea cages is included in Chapter 2. In order to provide the necessary understanding of the field, Chapter 3 perform a progressive introduction of theoretical concepts in relation with underwater acoustic techniques linked with biomass estimation. To find out the tuna behavior inside the cages after being captured an experiment was carried out. Likewise, a second experiment was proposed to evaluate the response of tunas to certain anthropogenic sounds (as those produced by offshore wind turbine). The methodology and results of both studies presented are discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 shows the feasibility of the use of acoustic techniques to evaluate "ex situ" dorsal target strength (TS). A relationship between dorsal aspect TS and tuna length was obtained. To perform it, four different tuna size in four separated sea cages were measured using two EK60 echosounders working at 120 and 200 kHz respectively. Using data from tuna slaughter on a farm, relations between the weight and the different dimensions of the tuna: length, maximum width and height have been looked for. Obtained expressions allow to calculate fattened tunas weight from the three tuna dimensions. Results are shown in Chapter 6. In order to expand the study carried out in Chapter 5, an experiment was proposed to determine the relationship between ventral TS and tuna size. In this case, measurements were carried out using acoustic and optic techniques in a new setup concept. A stereoscopic vision system synchronized with two echosounders (EK60) emitting at 120 and 200 kHz were used. With this setup, it is possible to know the value of the TS for a certain tuna that was recorded and measured with the cameras. As in the dorsal measures case, it was sought to know the applicability degree of combined technique in fattened tuna cages. This study and its results are presented in Chapter 7. Finally, in Chapter 8, a new method to counting tuna using acoustic techniques is presented. This method is intended to facilitate counting tuna during transfer process. The use of underwater acoustic techniques allows to automate tuna counting and to make it immune to water turbidity during transfers. To achieve it, a side scan sonar working 200 kHz was used. / El atún rojo (Thunnus thynnus) es una especie de alto valor económico que se vio amenazada en el cambio de siglo por la sobrepesca. Este hecho llevó a la Comisión Internacional para la Conservación del Atún Atlántico (ICCAT) , a establecer un Plan de recuperación cuyas tres ejes principales fueron: imponer un férreo sistema de cuotas de pesca, limitar los periodos en los que esta especie puede ser capturada y fijar una talla mínima de captura .Los productores, afectados por las restricciones impuestas a la captura necesitan de herramientas para el control del proceso de engrase que permitan mejorar la eficiencia de dicho proceso. Del mismo modo se precisa la mejora de las herramientas utilizadas para el control de la cuota pesquera asignada. El control de la biomasa en las jaulas de engrase de atunes se realiza, bien mediante muestreos manuales que pueden provocar daños a los peces y resultar costosos operacional y económicamente, o bien mediante el uso de sistemas de cámaras estereoscópicas, no invasivas con los peces, pero que se ven limitadas por el alcance del campo de visión de las cámaras, la profundidad y la turbiedad del agua. Las técnicas acústicas se han revelado como una herramienta eficiente para el control de la biomasa en jaulas de cría para otras especies de gran consumo, como la dorada o el salmón. En esta tesis se propone estudiar la viabilidad del uso de las técnicas acústicas para el control de los atunes en las jaulas de engrase, así como para la evaluación del comportamiento de los atunes cuando pasan de vivir en estado salvaje a estar confinados en jaulas marinas. El tamaño de los atunes, así como la forma y tamaño de las jaulas donde son engrasados, limita los estudios y las configuraciones de medida presentadas en el presente documento. En el Capítulo 2 se incluye información general sobre del atún rojo y sobre su engrase en cautividad. Seguidamente, en el Capítulo 3, se ofrecen los conceptos básicos y la formulación sobre acústica submarina para facilitar la comprensión del resto de capítulos. Se realizó un experimento con el objetivo de conocer cómo se comporta el atún rojo en cautividad y si dicho comportamiento se veía alterado cuando era sometido a estímulos sonoros externos de carácter antropogénico. La metodología y los resultados de este estudio se muestran en el Capítulo 4. En el Capítulo 5, se evalúa la idoneidad del uso de técnicas acústicas para establecer una relación entre el tamaño del atún rojo y el TS (a 120 y 200 kHz), cuando se realizan las medidas desde la superficie del mar y con los sensores orientados hacia el fondo (vista dorsal de los peces). A partir de datos provenientes del sacrifico de peces engrasados, se han buscado relaciones entre el peso y las dimensiones del atún rojo. De este modo se han obtenido expresiones que predicen el peso medio de los peces engrasados en una jaula a partir de su longitud, altura y anchura máxima. Dichas expresiones se muestran en el Capítulo 6. Haciendo uso de las técnicas acústicas combinadas con un sistema de visión estereoscópica, se ha estudiado la viabilidad de obtener relaciones entre la longitud del atún rojo y el TS (a 120 y 200 kHz) en jaulas de engrase desde el punto de vista ventral. Para ello, se dispusieron los equipos en el fondo de la jaula de engrase y se registraron los datos con todos los sensores sincronizados y mirando hacia la superficie. De este modo se pudo conocer el valor del TS de un pez determinado que es grabado con un sistema estereoscópico que nos facilitara datos sobre su longitud, anchura máxima y orientación respecto del transductor. Se presenta en el capítulo 8 un método para el conteo de atunes mediante técnicas acústicas usando un sonar de barrido lateral trabajando a 200 kHz. Esta técnica novedosa pretende facilitar el conteo de ejemplares durante los procesos de transferencia, automatizándolo en gran medida y haciéndolo inmune a la fa / La tonyina roja (Thunnus thynnus) és una espècie d'alt valor econòmic que es va veure amenaçada durant el canvi de segle per la sobrepesca. Este fet va portar a la Comissió Internacional per a la Conservació de la Tonyina Atlàntica (ICCAT), a establir un pla de recuperació que tenía com a eixos principals imposar un ferri sistema de quotes de pesca, limitar els períodes en què esta espècie pot ser capturada, a fixar una talla mínima de captura. Els productors, afectats per les restriccions imposades a la captura necessiten de ferramentes per al control del procés de engreixament que permeten millorar l'eficiència del procés. De la mateixa manera, es precisa la millora de les ferramentes utilitzades per al control de la quota pesquera assignada. El control de la biomassa en les gàbies d'engreixament de tonyines es realitza, bé per mitjà de mostrejos manuals que poden provocar danys als peixos i resultar costosos operacional i econòmicament, o bé per mitjà de l'ús de sistemes de càmeres estereoscòpiques no invasives amb els peixos, però que es veuen limitades per l'abast del camp de visió de les càmeres, la profunditat i la terbolesa de l'aigua. Les tècniques acústiques s'han revelat com una ferramenta eficient per al control de la biomassa en gàbies de cria per a altres espècies de gran consum com la daurada o el salmó. En esta tesi es proposa estudiar la viabilitat de l'ús de les tècniques acústiques per al control de les tonyines en les gàbies engreixament, així com per a l'avaluació del comportament de les tonyines quan passen de viure en estat salvatge, a estar confinades en gàbies marines. La grandària de les tonyines, així com la forma i grandària de les gàbies on són engreixades, limita els estudis i les configuracions de mesura presentades en este document. En el Capítol 2, s'inclou informació general sobre la tonyina roja i sobre el seu engreixament en captivitat. A continuació, en el Capítol 3, s'ofereixen els conceptes bàsics i la formulació sobre acústica submarina per a facilitar la comprensió de la resta de capítols. Es va realitzar un experiment amb l'objectiu de conèixer com es comportava la tonyina roja en captivitat, i si este comportament es veia alterat quan era sotmesa a estímuls sonors externs de caràcter antropogènic. La metodologia i els resultats d'este estudi es mostren en el Capítol 4. En el Capítol 5, s'avalua la idoneïtat de l'ús de tècniques acústiques per a establir una relació entre la grandària de la tonyina roja i el TS (a 120 i 200 kHz), quan es realitzen les mesures des de la superfície del mar i amb els sensors orientats cap al fons (vista dorsal dels peixos). A partir de dades provinents del sacrifici de peixos engreixats, s'han buscat relacions entre el pes i les dimensions de la tonyina roja. D'esta manera, s'han obtingut dades que prediuen el pes mitjà dels peixos engreixats en una gàbia a partir de la seua longitud, alçària i amplària màxima. Estes dades es mostren en el Capítol 6. Fent ús de les tècniques acústiques combinades amb un sistema de visió estereoscòpica, es va estudiar la viabilitat d'obtindre relacions entre la longitud de la tonyina roja i el TS (a 120 i 200 kHz) en gàbies d'engreixament des del punt de vista ventral. Per a això, es van disposar els equips en el fons de la gàbia marina i es van registrar les dades amb tots els sensors sincronitzats i mirant cap a la superfície. De aquesta manera, es va poder conèixer el valor del TS d'un peix determinat que és gravat amb un sistema estereoscòpic que ens facilitarà dades sobre la seua longitud, amplària màxima i orientació respecte del transductor. Finalment, en el Capítol 8, es presenta un mètode per al comptatge de tonyines per mitjà de tècniques acústiques fent ús d'un un sonar d'escombrat lateral treballant a 200 kHz . Esta tècnica nova pretén facilitar el comptatge d'exemplars durant els processos de transferència, au / Puig Pons, V. (2017). Control y caracterización del Atún Rojo en Jaulas Marinas [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86213

[pt] A Teoria do Capital Humano defende que a educação formal é necessária para aumentar a capacidade de produção de uma população: uma população educada é uma população produtiva e dotada de maior nível de bem-estar social, o que, por sua vez, proporciona a diminuição da pobreza e da desigualdade de renda. Na década de 1970, Carlos Geraldo Langoni estudou, de forma pioneira e com o auxílio da Teoria do Capital Humano, a variação da desigualdade de renda no Brasil na década de 1960. Seu trabalho demonstrou que a variável educação possuía a maior correlação para explicar os resultados observados de desigualdade nos rendimentos do trabalho. Desníveis provenientes do sistema educacional brasileiro, envolvendo crianças e adolescentes, resultavam em desníveis salariais entre os trabalhadores no mercado de trabalho. Langoni contribuiu para a formação de um grupo de pesquisadores brasileiros que, influenciados por aquela perspectiva teórica, participaram a partir da década de 1990, do debate público envolvendo a formulação de programas de transferências de renda condicionadas à frequência escolar. Embora as teses baseadas na Teoria do Capital Humano apresentadas por Langoni, em 1973, fossem consistentes e representassem importante contribuição para a compreensão da desigualdade de renda, o ambiente político e acadêmico dos anos de 1970 terminou por inibir a repercussão e o reconhecimento de seu trabalho. Apenas a partir de 1990, tendo à frente seus seguidores, aquelas ideias e a própria Teoria do Capital Humano passaram a influenciar governos, políticas sociais, e, de alguma forma, as escolhas da própria sociedade brasileira. / [en] Human Capital Theory proposes that formal education is necessary to increase a population s productivity: an educated population tends also to be a productive one and to present a higher level of social well-being that provides reduction of poverty and income inequality. Based on Human Capital Theory, Carlos Geraldo Langoni pioneered, in the 1970s, a study on the variation of income inequality in Brazil during the 1960s. His work demonstrated that education was the variable that best correlated with future income inequality. The inequality gaps involving children and adolescents in the Brazilian educational system were reproduced in wage gaps among workers in the labor market. Langoni contributed to the formation of a group of Brazilian researchers who were influenced by this theory. As of the 1990s, these researchers were involved in the public debate regarding the issuance of cash transfers conditional on school attendance programs. Although these conclusions based on Human Capital Theory presented by Langoni in 1973 were consistent and represented an important contribution to the understanding of income inequality, the political and academic environment of the 1970s ended by inhibiting the impact and recognition of the work. Starting in the 1990s, headed by his followers, those ideas and Human Capital Theory influenced governments, social policies, and somehow the choices of Brazilian society.

La ICSI porcina es una herramienta con gran potencial aplicativo en diversos campos, entre los que destacan la producción de animales transgénicos, y la recuperación de razas en peligro de extinción. Aunque en la actualidad existen referencias de obtención de descendencia viva, el rendimiento es inferior al de otras especies, posiblemente debido al desconocimiento de las condiciones idóneas, y la dificultad de los cigotos para alcanzar el estadío de blastocisto in vitro. El presente trabajo se llevó a cabo para determinar diferentes factores que podrían afectar al rendimiento de la técnica, estudiando el efecto de 1) la secuencia de cultivo de los zigotos recién inyectados; 2) modificaciones en el sistema de MIV tradicional, y por último 3) la activación exógena del ovocito mediante la inyección de inositol trifosfato con el espermatozoide. El objetivo global de este estudio fue el de incrementar el rendimiento final de la ICSI en la especie porcina. / ICSI in pigs is a tool with an important applicable potential in diverse fields. One of this is the production of transgenic animals, and the conservation of endangered species. Even though there are some cases of living offspring, its output is still quite low comparing to other species, possibly due to unknown factors referring to ideal conditions for the development, and to the difficulty of the zygotes to reach the blastocyst stage in vitro. The goal of this study was to evaluate different factors affecting the ICSI performance. This was done by studying 1) the sequence of culture of the injected oocytes; 2) In vitro maturation (IVM) modifications, through meiotic inhibitors, such as roscovitine, and changes in IVM duration time, and finally 3) the exogenous oocyte activation through inositol triphosphate (InsP3) injection together with the sperm. The main objective of this study was to increase the final performance of ICSI in pigs.

En este estudio se analizan las actitudes lingüísticas hacia el español andino en universitarios con diferentes contextos sociolingüísticos y socioeconómicos de tres universidades en La Paz, Bolivia, en relación con el español andino. Se utiliza una encuesta que incluye dos técnicas: pares falsos donde los informantes opinan sobre cuatro voces, dos del español andino y dos del español estándar y se mide el índice de solidaridad y de estatus; y un cuestionario de diferenciación semántica que mide las actitudes hacia las diferentes clases de transferencia del aymara al español andino. El análisis de los resultados indica que la actitud hacia los hablantes del español estándar es más positiva que la actitud hacia los hablantes del español andino, hay más solidaridad y más que todo se le asigna más estatus. Son los mismos hablantes del español andino que muestran las actitudes menos positivas. / In this study the linguistic attitudes towards the Andean Spanish of students at three universities with different socio-linguistic and socio-economic contexts in La Paz, Bolivia, are analyzed. In the survey two techniques are used: matched guised where informants evaluate four voices, two Andean Spanish-speaking people and two "standard" Spanish-speaking people in which the rate of solidarity and status is measured; and a questionnaire with a semantic differentiation scale which measures attitudes towards different kinds of transfers from Aymara to Andean Spanish. The results of the analisis indicate that the attitude towards speakers of "standard" Spanish is more positive than the attitude towards Andean Spanish speakers, it provoces more solidarity and especially more status. The very same speakers of Spanish Andean show the least positive attitudes.

Publicación a texto completo no autorizada por el autor / Estudia y expone un tema altamente discutido no sólo a nivel doctrinal sino también –y principalmente- a nivel jurisprudencial, lo que ha generado un clima de preocupación e incertidumbre entre los justiciables y los operadores del derecho. Es decir al tema de la oponibilidad de derechos subjetivos que recaen sobre un mismo bien inscrito y, particularmente, al conflicto que se suscita en la denominada tercería de propiedad, esto es, la colisión entre un derecho de propiedad no inscrito y un derecho de crédito inscrito en forma de embargo. En efecto, desde ya hace bastante existe una perniciosa contradicción resolutiva entre las Salas Civiles de la Corte Suprema –y ni qué decir a nivel de las primeras instancias- en las tercerías de propiedad sobre inmuebles inscritos. Así, mientras la Sala Civil Transitoria suele declarar fundadas las tercerías planteadas por el propietario cuyo derecho no ha sido inscrito, argumentándose que al ser la propiedad un derecho real –con oponibilidad egra omnes- y el embargo un derecho personal –con oponibilidad inter partes-, prevalece la primera en aplicación de las disposiciones del Derecho Común. Ejemplo de ello son las casaciones Nº 964-98-Lima, Nº 06-01-Arequipa, Nº 62-2001-Lima, Nº 403-2001-Piura, Nº 638-2006-Lima, Nº 1776-2009-Lambayeque, entre muchas otras. Por su parte, la Sala Civil Permanente consistentemente ha venido rechazando las tercerías sobre el mismo tema, sosteniendo que el embargo inscrito prima en aplicación del principio registral de prioridad y a fin de dar seguridad al tráfico comercial-inmobiliario. A modo de ejemplo pueden verse las casaciones Nº 527-2003-Lima, Nº 403-2001-Piura y Nº 333-2003-Lambayeque; 4325-2006-Arequipa. Ante éste panorama en el que los justiciables se ven enfrentados a una justicia de doble discurso, casi una moneda al aire (dependiendo de la Sala Suprema que resolviera la controversia o, en todo caso, del criterio adoptado por el Juzgado o la Sala Superior que tramite su causa) pese a encontrarnos ante un tema de gran trascendencia socio-económica; nos hemos visto motivados a proponer –por medio del presente trabajo- una solución coherente y consecuente con nuestra normativa sustantiva y procesal, solución que dicho sea de paso se aleja por completo de los fundamentos que hasta el momento se han venido sosteniendo tanto en el formante jurisprudencial como en el doctrinal. / Tesis

[pt] Os três ensaios que compõem esta tese, têm como objetivo analisar o funcionamento do federalismo fiscal no Brasil. O primeiro analisa as tendências de longo prazo no grau de centralização e no crescimento do governo e sua relação durante o século XX. O achado mais importante deste ensaio é que os processos de descentralização fiscal promovidos pelas Constituições de 1946 e de 1988 aceleraram o crescimento do governo. Esses processos de descentralização provocaram crises no nível federal, que levaram o governo central a aumentar sua receita tributária para compensar a perda de receitas derivada da descentralização de recursos fiscais. Do outro lado, essa descentralização provocou o crescimento da despesa dos estados e municípios, que não foi compensado pela redução da despesa do governo federal. O segundo ensaio analisa a utilização de transferências intergovernamentais como mecanismo de financiamento dos níveis inferiores de governo. Esse ensaio desenvolve um modelo analítico para explicar o efeito expansivo das transferências sobre a despesa das unidades receptoras, conhecido como flypaper effect, e as diferenças regionais na sua intensidade. Usando um modelo de parámetros variando no espaço, o estudo demonstra empíricamente a presença do flypaper effect nas finanças dos municípios brasileros e suas diferenças regionais. Finalmente, o terceiro estuda os determinantes político institucionais do comportamento fiscal dos estados durante o período 1985-1997. O ensaio mostra a existência de ciclos políticos eleitorais, a influência expansionista da fragmentação do sistema partidário sobre a postura fiscal dos estados, a disciplina fiscal imposta pela da participação política da população e o fato de que que administrações estaduais de esquerda tendem a adotar posturas fiscais mais expansionistas do que as adotadas por administrações estaduais de centro ou de direita. / [en] The three essays in this dissertation analyze fiscal federalism in Brazil. The first studies the long run trends of the fiscal centralization and the size of government and their relationship during the XX Century. The most important finding of the first essay is that the process of decentralization inspired by the 1946 and 1948 Constitutions led to an overall expansion of government activities (at the federal, state, and municipal levels). The increase in state and municipal expenditures - because of the decentralization of fiscal resources - was not matched by an equivalent reduction in federal expenditures. Because federal expenditures did not decrease accordingly, and because the decentralization of fiscal resources resulted in a loss of federal revenues, the federal government needed to increase taxes in order to narrow the deficit. The second essay analyzes the use of intergovernmental transfers to finance lower levels of government. The essay develops an analytical model to explain both the expansive effects of transfers on the expenditures of recipient governments, called the flypaper effect. as well as reasons for their regional differences. Using an space-parameter varying estimation, the study empirically demonstrates the expansive effects of intergovernmental and detects their regional differences in Brazilian local governments finances. Finally, the third essay argues that political cycles strongly influenced the fiscal behavior of Brazilian states between 1985 and 1997. The study confirms the existence of political cycles, the influence of political fragmentation, the fiscal discipline induced by the participation of the population and that left wing administrations tended to adopt more expansionary fiscal policies than center or right wing administrations.

[pt] Em 2003, o Congresso Nacional aprovou uma lei regulamentando o crédito consignado, o que causou um grande impacto no crédito a pessoas físicas. No capítulo 1, forneço evidências que o crédito consignado teve um efeito pequeno, mas não desprezível, nas escolhas ocupacionais. Em particular, eu encontro evidências que o crédito consignado está associado positivamente com escolhas ocupacionais com características de empreendedorismo. Esse efeito é mais forte em indivíduos que estão numa faixa etária onde dificilmente será um aposentado e residem em famílias com aposentados e pensionistas, o que sugere a existência de mecanismos de transferência intra-familiares. No Capítulo 2, eu apresento evidências de que o crédito consignado tem um efeito pequeno, mas não desprezível, nos indicadores de saúde dos idosos. Em particular, o crédito consignado está: 1) negativamente associado com as taxas de mortalidade nas faixas etárias de 60 a 69 anos e 70 a 79 anos. 2) negativamente associado com indices de dificuldades físicas. Esse efeito é maior em famílias com menor renda. 3) positivamente associado com um número de consultas médicas por ano. Usando uma abordagem diff-diff, encontro evidência de que um possível mecanismo é um aumento de gastos com saúde nas famílias com maior proporção de ganhos oriundos de aposentadorias nas suas rendas. / [en] In 2003, the Brazilian Congress passed a law regulating payroll lending, which had a large impact on consumer lending (Coelho et al [2011]). In Chapter 1, I present evidence that that payroll lending had a small but non-negligible impact on occupational choice. In particular I find that payroll lending is positively associated with more entrepreneurial-like occupations. The effect is stronger for individuals in age ranges unlikely to have retirees in families with retirees or pensioners, suggesting that intra-family transfer mechanisms are operative. In Chapter 2, I present evidence that that payroll lending had a small but non-negligible impact on health outcome for elderly citizens. In particular, we find that Payroll Lending: 1) is negatively associated with death rates on age ranges of 60-69 and 70-79 years old; 2) is associated with less physical disabilities. The effect is stronger for individuals in families with lower incomes; 3) is associated with more medical consultations per year. Using a diff-diff approach, I also find evidence that one possible mechanism is more health care spending in families with more proportion of retirement benefits in their income.

El presente trabajo de investigación busca encontrar en que forma las transferencias del Programa de Incentivos a la Mejora de la Gestión Municipal afectan el nivel de recaudación del impuesto predial por parte de los gobiernos locales. Con un panel de datos para 34 municipalidades para el periodo 2010-2018, estimamos una ecuación que recoge la relación entre ambas variables empleando un modelo econométrico de efetos fijos. Los resultados muestran que las transferencias afectan negativamente la recaudación del impuesto predial actuando como un sustituto de ingresos. / This paper seeks to find out how the transfers of the "Programa de Incentivos a la Mejora de la Gestión Municipal" affect the level of property tax collection by local governments. With a data panel for 34 municipalities for the 2010-2018 period, we estimate an equation that captures the relationship between both variables using a fixed-effect econometric model. The results show that transfers negatively affect the collection of property tax acting as a substitute for income. / Trabajo de investigación

Memoria para optar al grado de Licenciado en Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales / La presente investigación tiene por objeto realizar un examen relativo al derecho chileno en descentralización regional, con ocasión de las reformas constitucional y legal en la materia, de inicios del 2017 e inicios del 2018, respectivamente. Para lograr dicho cometido, la investigación se ha separado en cuatro capítulos. El capítulo primero contiene una exposición histórica de las instituciones vinculadas a la descentralización territorial de nivel supra-local, desde la época colonial hasta la reforma de 1991 que instaura el Gobierno Regional y la reforma de 2013 que establece legalmente la elección directa de sus Consejeros Regionales, para pasar a la exposición de los puntos clave de las recientes primeras reformas mencionadas, como son la elección por sufragio universal de un nuevo órgano ejecutivo regional llamado Gobernador Regional (reforma constitucional) y el establecimiento de un mecanismo de transferencias de competencias (reforma legal). En el capítulo segundo, se introduce el primer objeto teórico que sirve de apoyo para los comentarios, esto es, el estudio del Estado-nación y su naturaleza, así como el delineamiento de un concepto jurídico estricto de descentralización del ordenamiento jurídico estatal. En el capítulo tercero, se estudia la teoría jurídica del concepto de comunidad subnacional que, articulado con el de Estado-nación, permite construir la figura de la Colectividad Territorial del derecho francés, con autonomía administrativa tanto en su aspecto orgánico como competencial. Finalmente, en el capítulo cuarto, el aparato teórico esbozado con anterioridad permitirá que se encuentren las falencias de las reformas constitucional y legal, en cuanto el derecho positivo resultante sobre descentralización regional es contrastado con los pilares del modelo de descentralización en Colectividades Territoriales, finalizando la exposición con un breve estudio sobre la estructura de las competencias ya transferidas por el legislador / The purpose of this research is to carry out an examination on the Chilean law about regional decentralization, on the occasion of the constitutional and legal reforms in the matter, from the beginning of 2017 and the beginning of 2018, respectively. To achieve this goal, this research has been separated into four chapters. The first chapter contains a historical exposition of the institutions linked to the supra-local territorial decentralization, from the colonial period until the reform of 1991 which established the Regional Government and the reform of 2013 which legally established the direct election of its Regional Advisors, to move on the exposition of the key points of the first said recent reforms, such as the election by universal suffrage of a new regional executive body called the Regional Governor (constitutional reform) and the establishment of a mechanism of transfers of powers (legal reform). In the second chapter, the first theoretical object that serves as support for the commentaries is introduced, that is the study of the nation-state and its nature, as well as the delineation of a strict legal concept of decentralization of the state legal order. In the third chapter, we study the legal theory of the concept of subnational community which, articulated with that of the nation-state, allows us to build the legal concept of Territorial Collectivity from French law, with an administrative autonomy both in its organic and powers-related aspects. Lastly, in the fourth chapter, the theoretical apparatus outlined before will allow us to spot the flaws of the constitutional and legal reforms, as the resulting positive system of law about regional decentralization is contrasted with the cornerstones of the model of decentralization in Territorial Collectivities, ending the exposition with a brief study of the structure of powers already transferred by the legislator.

Historically, over the years, it seems that globally, societies have undergone severe changes, due to population movements, because of wars, internal conflicts and pandemics. History repeats itself today, as wars, civil violence, poverty and pandemics have not stopped, causing an influx of refugees and migrants in the western world (USA, Canada, Germany, Spain, Italy, France, etc.). Greece is one of these countries, which is an accessible place for refugees and migrants, due to its geophysical location. Therefore, up to this day, the coexistence of people with different races, cultures, religions and languages is a point of discussion for the host countries. As a standard value, social justice creates conditions of equality and acceptance of diversity, passing down from generation to generation through family and, later, school. Social justice in education is linked to the ability to perceive conditions that marginalize and exclude children of certain social groups from access to education and knowledge. At the same time, it is linked to the creation of an open democratic school, which promotes the values of equality, acceptance and love for those students, who belong to marginalized social groups, such as refugees and migrants. School leadership of social justice is the continuation of education of social justice, called upon to envision and create this open democratic school through transformational leadership practices. This research comes to add another stone to the previous relevant research, inspired by them, aiming at highlighting the implementation of school leadership of social justice in Greek multicultural primary schools in the light of the views of their principals. Through the development of the theoretical framework, this research paper, presenting historical backgrounds from the Middle Ages to the present day, thoroughly describes the multicultural social context in Greece and Europe, as well as social justice in the educational and school leadership process. Specifically, this research study attempts to discover the inclusive practices of school leadership of social justice, which are related to the co-education of refugee/migrant students in the Greek primary schools and to highlight problems that may, possibly, stop them. Action research has been chosen as an appropriate methodological tool, since its main goal is to explore and understand societies and educational systems, as well as to achieve their change to a better quality. The research process, which, in fact, took place in the year 2021, is characterized by a substantial social phenomenon, which stroke humanity, worldwide, at that time. The COVID-19 pandemic brought significant changes to the operation of schools, as education was carried out remotely, through special platforms, resulting in the closure of schools for long periods of time. For this reason, quantitative methods and practices have been used, such as the questionnaire, which is the most appropriate and reliable form of research tool, especially when research takes place in such difficult social conditions. The investigation focused on: a) the search for practices followed by school social justice leaders to include refugee/migrant students, b) the search for problems that may deter these practices, and c) the intercultural values that govern the school leader of social justice. The most important findings of the research can be summarized as follows: a) school leaders believe in the value of social justice and try to implement and promote it, creating an appropriate school environment, b) they believe in the co-education of refugee/migrant children with other students in the same classroom and not at separate times in the school timetable, c) they consider that coexistence with refugee/migrant students is beneficial for all children, d) they believe that the main problem that makes it difficult for them to include refugee/migrant students into the school environment is the different language and religion and e) even if they believe that inclusive practices should be applied for these students, Greek school leaders do not seem to organize and implement intercultural innovative educational programs and events at their schools. The originality and contribution of this research study to the science of school leadership of social justice is essential, as it has given its intercultural dimension in the light of the inclusion of refugee/migrant students. There are not many research studies that focus on the intercultural character of school leadership of social justice. Therefore, this research, in Greece, provides the opportunity to obtain important information for being used by the Greek and international Ministries of Education. The main proposal of this research concerns the design and imperative implementation of Intercultural Education Training Programs for school leaders, as, nowadays, worldwide, not only in Greece, school has a multicultural nature.