This dissertation examines four disadvantaged groups in the labour market from a variety of perspectives. Specifically, I looked into older workers, younger workers, nonstandard workers and female workers. In the first chapter, I examine the effects of Ontario eliminating mandatory retirement in 2006 on the labour force participation of older workers and the unemployment of younger workers. My second chapter examines the relationship between nonstandard employment and the subsequent workplace profitability. In my final chapter, I examine the interaction effect of employment status and gender on the issue of work hour mismatches. The first chapter examines the impact of recent labour policy change at a national/provincial level. I find positive and significant effects for the labour force participation rate of older workers in Ontario in the five years following the legislation change of banning mandatory retirement in Onatrio. Similar results are found for both men and women; however, the magnitude of this effect is somewhat smaller for men. In addition, the empirical analysis also reveals a short-run rise in the unemployment rate of younger workers. The second chapter examines the financial implication of nonstandard employment at an organizational level. The results suggest that nonstandard employment is positively associated with subsequent workplace profitability, after controlling for factors that might also affect profitability. Moreover, this significant positive relationship between nonstandard employment and subsequent profitability is primarily driven by capital intensive manufacturing, the real estate/rental/leasing, the retail/trade/consumer service, and the education and health services industries as well as smaller workplaces. Larger workplaces and the rest of the private sector do not display significant results. The final chapter looks into how employment status and gender systematically impact work hour preferences at an individual level. The findings indicate that there is a significant interaction effect between nonstandard employment and gender. Female nonstandard workers prefer to work more hours. Male workers, both nonstandard and standard, are more likely to prefer to work fewer or the same hours. These results conform to labour market trend of increasing labour force participation rates of females and a declining trend among males.

This dissertation examines four disadvantaged groups in the labour market from a variety of perspectives. Specifically, I looked into older workers, younger workers, nonstandard workers and female workers. In the first chapter, I examine the effects of Ontario eliminating mandatory retirement in 2006 on the labour force participation of older workers and the unemployment of younger workers. My second chapter examines the relationship between nonstandard employment and the subsequent workplace profitability. In my final chapter, I examine the interaction effect of employment status and gender on the issue of work hour mismatches. The first chapter examines the impact of recent labour policy change at a national/provincial level. I find positive and significant effects for the labour force participation rate of older workers in Ontario in the five years following the legislation change of banning mandatory retirement in Onatrio. Similar results are found for both men and women; however, the magnitude of this effect is somewhat smaller for men. In addition, the empirical analysis also reveals a short-run rise in the unemployment rate of younger workers. The second chapter examines the financial implication of nonstandard employment at an organizational level. The results suggest that nonstandard employment is positively associated with subsequent workplace profitability, after controlling for factors that might also affect profitability. Moreover, this significant positive relationship between nonstandard employment and subsequent profitability is primarily driven by capital intensive manufacturing, the real estate/rental/leasing, the retail/trade/consumer service, and the education and health services industries as well as smaller workplaces. Larger workplaces and the rest of the private sector do not display significant results. The final chapter looks into how employment status and gender systematically impact work hour preferences at an individual level. The findings indicate that there is a significant interaction effect between nonstandard employment and gender. Female nonstandard workers prefer to work more hours. Male workers, both nonstandard and standard, are more likely to prefer to work fewer or the same hours. These results conform to labour market trend of increasing labour force participation rates of females and a declining trend among males.

Canada’s workforce, as well as many other countries, is continuing to age as the baby boomer generation (those born between 1946 and 1964) ages and are remaining in the workforce longer. The number of older workers is estimated to double within the next 10 years (Perry 2010). With increased age, there are a number of factors that could influence worker performance and risk of injury. For example, aging is associated with decreased strength and cardiovascular fitness. However, it is unknown whether a worker’s estimates of how much they can safely lift (based on an approach called psychophysics, which is often used in the design of manual materials handling tasks) is lower for older compared to younger workers. The primary goal of this thesis was to test the hypothesis that psychophysical estimates of maximum acceptable forces would be lower for older workers than younger workers during selected lifting tasks. The secondary goal was to measure a host of variables to provide insights into what factors (e.g. kinematic, strength, cardiovascular) might be influencing potential age-related differences. The experimental testing protocol used a psychophysical approach to identify the maximum acceptable mass of an object during several lifting tasks. Participants comprised a total of 24 female workers (12 older (50+ years old) and 12 younger (20-30 years old)). The primary outcome of interest was the maximum acceptable weight of lift (MAWL) for an 8 hour work day that would allow each participant to ‘work as hard as they can without straining themselves, or becoming unusually tired, weakened, overheated, or out of breath’ (Snook and Ciriello 1991). The participants completed four lifting tasks: floor-to-knuckle height (1 lift/9s and 1 lift/2 min) and knuckle-to-shoulder height (1 lift/2 min and 1 lift/8 hr) by adding or removing lead shot to a lifting box. Tasks were 30 minute in duration; participants could adjust the load mass at any time during the trial. The dependent variables collected were the MAWL (the load mass at the end of the trial), maximum sagittal plane joint angles of the shoulder, hip and knee, overall and body part specific ratings of perceived exertion, and heart rate. Older workers selected MAWL values that were significantly lower (by approximately 24%) than their younger counterparts. These age-related differences were more prevalent for tasks which were constrained by strength (i.e. low frequency) compared to those with large cardiovascular requirements (i.e. high frequency). The only significant difference in the sagittal plane joint flexion angle was for the right hip during the 1 lift/2 min from floor-to-knuckle height lifting task, characterized by 34.4 degree decrease hip angle (more flexed) for the older workers. There were also no significant age-related differences in overall ratings of perceived exertion. The only body part-specific rating of perceived exertion with a significant age-related difference was for the knees, with the younger workers reporting the tasks more taxing on this joint than the older workers. Although there were no age-related differences in absolute heart rate values, the older workers were at a significantly higher percentage of their maximum heart rate. The results of this work suggest there is value in continued research probing whether current ergonomic and work design guidelines need to be updated to accommodate the aging working population. According to the results presented in this study, the current approaches often employed during the design of manual materials handling tasks (i.e. incorporating the loads that 75% of females could perform based on the Snook and Ciriello tables (1991) may not be sufficiently protective for older female workers in the workplace.

An ageing population is changing the nature of the workplace, one outcome of which is an increase in the proportion of older workers. Unlike older workers of some twenty or so years ago, today's older workers plan to stay at work longer than at first anticipated. However, as many older workers have found, their intended and continued presence in the workplace is not always appreciated. As such, they are subject to subtle and not so subtle forms of discrimination associated with ageist practices, or ageism, and negative perceptions regarding their ability to compete on equal terms with younger workers. In turn, it is suggested that older workers, too, indulge in ageist practices and the stereotyping of younger workers. It is proposed that underlying generational differences,when combined with ageism, negative stereotyping and discriminatory organisational practices, are responsible for a new phenomenon called intergenerational tension in the workplace. The notion of tension, which can be thought of as suppressed anxiety or a strained relationship between individuals and groups, is important because intergenerational tension is presented as a latent or covert phenomenon. From this comes the following definition: "lntergenerational tension in the workplace is a latent or covert form of intergroup conflict caused by value and attitudinal differences between the generations." lntergenerational tension can be thought of as an everyday fact of organisational life which exists as an undercurrent or type of background organisational noise that is so pervasive that it is rarely noticed. In this respect, intergenerational tension bears similarities to gender and ethnic tensions both of which have been recognised as counterproductive to organisational efficiency. This thesis proposes a construct to measure this intergenerational tension. To investigate the generational differences associated with this new construct, a 25-item questionnaire was developed. The first stage in the development of the questionnaire was an informal experience survey that was completed by a small sample (n=54) of adults ranging in age from 21 years to 70+ years. A pilot study questionnaire was then constructed and administered to a small, stratified random sample of employees (n=60) from the Western Australia Police Service (WAPS). WAPS has recently changed from a seniority-based promotion system to a merit-based system for most positions and is undergoing a major cultural change in response to social and political pressure. Following data analysis, the final questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire, called the Intergenerational Tension Questionnaire (ITQ) was administered to a stratified random sample of employees from WAPS. Five hundred completed responses were subject to factor analysis in which principal components analysis extracted seven factors or dimensions thought to underlie intergenerational tension. Further data analysis revealed that on average, younger workers (i.e., less than 40 years of age) displayed less intergenerational tension than did older workers (i.e., more than 40 years of age). Data for workers a generation apart (i.e., 20 years apart) were also analysed, with the younger generation being those less than 30 years of age (the Under 30s) and the older generation being those more than 50 years of age (the Over 50s). The younger generation, on average, displayed less intergenerational tension than did the older generation. Of the measures, organisational change was associated with the greatest degree of intergenerational tension for all groups. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the best predictors of intergenerational tension for younger workers and older workers were age, the length of service with one's current employer, and the number of years in the paid work force. For workers a generation apart, multiple regression analysis revealed that age was the only predictor. It was fortuitous that at the time of the study, the majority of younger workers were Generation X and the majority of older workers were Baby Boomers. This meant that to all intents and purposes, the questionnaire measured differences between two well-studied generational cohorts. The findings supported the notion that organisations should not assume they are treating all workers equitably. In particular, older workers feel disenfranchised and angry at their treatment by organisations which, in their opinion, favours younger workers. The implication for organisations is that both groups should be treated independently, with each having its own special needs and expectations. This includes, for example, implementing strategies such as training methods suited to the needs of each age group and conducting age diversity training to raise awareness of what it means to be either a younger worker or an older worker.

Syftet med denna avhandling är att skapa kunskap om vad det innebär för yngre barn att genomgå nålrelaterade medicinska procedurer. Dessutom vad vårdande stöd i samband med dessa procedurer innebär utifrån barns, föräldrars och sjuksköterskors perspektiv. Nålrelaterade medicinska procedurer är undersökningar som barn behöver vara med om i vården för att motverka sjukdom, för att ta reda på varför barnet är sjukt och för att ge barnet behandling. Dessa åtgärder innebär att barn behöver vara med om nålstick. Med hjälp av deltagande observationer och livsvärldsintervjuer, som har dokumenterats genom videoobservationer, fältanteckningar och ljudinspelningar, har datainsamlingen genomförts i vården med yngre barn, 3-7 år, deras föräldrar och sjuksköterskor. Barnen har berättat om konsekvenser som de har upplevt av nålprocedurer och om att få stöd vid dessa åtgärder. Föräldrar och sjuksköterskor har berättat om sina erfarenheter av att ge stöd till barnen. Avhandlingens resultat visar att en framträdande konsekvens för barn under nålprocedurer är upplevelse av rädsla. Hur föräldrar och sjuksköterskor svarar an mot detta har en avgörande betydelse för om barnets rädsla ökar eller minskar. Denna avhandling bidrar med kunskap om barns upplevelser av nålprocedurer och behov av stöd samt hur stödet kan utformas vid dessa åtgärder. Emellertid, forskning inom området ärfortfarande otillräcklig och ytterligare forskning behövs där barns perspektiv lyfts fram i vården. / Aim: The overall aim of the thesis is to create knowledge about what it means for younger children to undergo needle-related medical procedures (NRMPs), and what caring support in relation to this means based on nurses’, parents’, and younger children's perspectives. Methods: The first and second papers used descriptive phenomenological analysis to describe the meanings of supporting younger children during NRMPs from the perspective of nurses (Ι) and parents(ΙΙ). The third and fourth papers used lifeworld hermeneutic analysis to explain and understand the consequences related to NRMPs (ΙΙΙ) and support (ΙV) during these procedures from younger children’s perspectives. Data has been collected by participant observations and lifeworld interviews documented by video-recorded observations, field notes, and audio-recorded interviews. In total 60 people participated, fourteen nurses, twenty-five parents, and twenty-one children. Main results: The results show that an important consequence for children of procedures with needles is experiences of fear. The child's fear affects how the child is able to manage the procedure and the support the child gets from adults is crucial to whether the child's fear increases or decreases. The support consists of giving support or receiving support. Parents support the child by safeguarding and protecting the child during the needle-related procedure; they “keep the child under the protection of their wings,” sometimes very close and sometimes a little further out under the wingtips. Nurses support the child by starting from individual child’s experiences and needs; they "balance on a tightrope" in an unpredictable situation. In the meeting between the child, the parents, and the nurses, the adults are guided by the child in what forms of support are provided. This continues until the needle-related medical procedure is completed and the child can walk proud and strong from the procedure with a feeling that "I can handle this.” Conclusions: Children’s need for support during needle-related medical procedures is primarily tied to children’s experiences of fear. For the child to experience a caring support, adults need to understand children’s experiences of fear as well as children’s need for support and what form the support should take. A caring support develops dialectically between children and adults in a circular movement. In such a dialectic, the child guides the adult and vice versa. That children have the capability of guiding adults during needle-related medical procedures shows that they are active and participating. Here it becomes clear that there is no objective location of the phenomenon of support. Support can therefore only be studied as a lived experience of those who need it.

This study discusses the extent to which hunter-gatherer mobility strategies are changed by abrupt climate change events by monitoring changes in lithic assemblage compositions through the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition, from ca. 14,000 cal BP to 10,000 cal BP in northwest Europe, with a focus on the Younger Dryas Stadial event, which occurred around 12,900 cal BP to 11,700 cal BP. A set of predicted archaeological indicators were formed from existing theoretical models, based largely on Binford’s logistical and residential mobility model, with the expectation that a more residential mobility strategy would be used by hunter-gatherer-populations during warmer climatic phases (i.e. the Allerød and Preboreal) and a more logistical mobility strategy would be used during cold climatic phases (i.e. the Younger Dryas). The lithic assemblages from sites across northwest Europe were then compared with these expectations in order to determine if a shift from a more residential strategy to a more logistical strategy can be seen from the lithic record. Additionally, a further comparative dataset was collected from south Europe in order to determine if there were differences in the response to the Younger Dryas at lower latitudes where the impact of this event is assumed to be less severe. The results found that in northwest Europe there is evidence to suggest there was indeed a shift from a more residential strategy during the warm Allerød interstadial to a more logistical strategy during the Younger Dryas Stadial, and the adoption of a more residential strategy with the return of warmer conditions during the Preboreal. However, it appears that the Preboreal Interstadial shows significant differences between the Allerød Interstadial, with the Preboreal sharing more characteristics in common with the Younger Dryas. This has been interpreted as a response to the unstable climatic conditions reported from the environmental evidence in this region during the Preboreal, which may have limited the ability of hunter-gatherer populations to return to similar levels of residential mobility seen during the Allerød. The south Europe dataset provides evidence that the lesser impact of the Younger Dryas at lower latitudes brought about a more muted response by hunter-gatherer populations to this event when compared with the northwest. However, there appears to be a reversal of that seen in the northwest, with more logistically mobile populations during the Allerød and especially the Preboreal, and more residentially mobile populations during the Younger Dryas. This is despite the environmental evidence showing a very similar environmental response to the northwest, with a distinct opening of the landscape during the Younger Dryas. The apparent difference in mobility strategies appear to be more related to the available faunal species within a region and their behaviour within their environment rather than directly to the climate. In the south, species such as red deer and ibex are the main source of faunal subsistence throughout the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition, unchanged by shifts in temperature and environment, but the way in which hunter-gatherers would hunt such species would be expected to change in more wooded environments compared with more open environments. If we compare this with the northwest, there is evidence of a distinct change from hunted prey, such as red deer, during the Allerød and Preboreal, to reindeer and horse during the Younger Dryas (although faunal preservation is poor in this region). With this shift to a more mobile prey species, along with a harsher, more open environment it may be more suitable to practise a more logistical strategy. Additionally, the instability of the Preboreal may have also changed the environment on a smaller scale, which would have required the hunting of warmer climate prey in shifting local environments, much like that of the Younger Dryas in south Europe. This might explain the differences seen between the Allerød and the Preboreal. Overall, there appears to be strong evidence supporting the theory that colder, harsher climates promote a more logistically mobile response from hunter-gatherer populations as seen in the northwest of Europe, and that there was a more muted, different response to the Younger Dryas in the lower latitudes of south Europe. However, it is the opinion here that changes in human mobility are not controlled directly be climatic conditions, rather controlled by the available major prey species and their behaviour in changing environments.

Occupational ill-health statistics have consistently placed construction as a high risk industry. Younger workers (aged 15-24) constituting 24% of the UK construction workforce are a high risk group for occupational illnesses from more exposure to physical work factors including noise, vibrations and the handling of dangerous substances. The provision of effective training to young people entering the workforce is crucial in preventing occupational illnesses and improving the industry s occupational health (OH) performance. However, whilst the delivery of training in industries such as healthcare and aviation has rapidly been shifting from pedagogical/instructional theoretical frameworks towards more learner-focused andragogical approaches rich in hands-on/experiential learning, training in the construction industry has not taken full advantage of new training approaches. This thesis aims to examine OH training methods for UK construction apprentices and evaluate the role and effectiveness of a simulation-based training strategy, in order to enhance the OH training for construction apprentices. It presents and adopts innovative wearable, hands on simulations that were designed and developed at Loughborough University, called LUSKInS (Loughborough University Sensory and Kinaesthetic Interactive Simulations), to assess their value and utility in the training of construction apprentices. In order to address the research aim and provide comprehensive answers to the research questions, the research adopted an inductive, multimethods approach, in which the collection and analysis of data combined quantitative and qualitative research methods. First, reviews of theories of learning and existing research utilising simulation learning tools in various educational settings were carried out, to gather insights into how people learn, the theoretical underpinning to the use of simulations as well as the efficacy of simulation-based training. This analysis indicated that use of simulations that is based on the review and application of relevant learning theories has significant potential in enhancing the learning of construction apprentices. Furthermore, the analysis identified a need to move from traditional direct instructional training methods towards more experiential and learner-centred methods in construction education and training. Accordingly, the subsequent use of wearable simulations in the study was guided by experiential and constructivist learning principles, meaning that the research participants were provided with interactive and engaging contextual experiences, which allowed them to actively construct their own understanding, as opposed to them passively acquiring OH information from external sources. Second, fieldwork data was gathered through survey questionnaires, participant observations, semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation. This involved construction apprentices and instructors from three colleges located in London, Midlands and Norfolk. Together, the quantitative and qualitative data confirmed that a traditional instructor-centred approach, which places emphasis on the passive transmission of information and the use of standardised presentations, texts and workbooks dominates the delivery of OH training for construction apprentices, despite many of the trainees in the study expressing a preference for highly engaging, active or hands-on methods of learning to passive, information-based approaches. It was clear from the findings that by failing to take into consideration the diversity in learning preferences among the trainees and the crucial role of interaction and learner participation in the learning process, the existing instructional strategies do not effectively support the learning of construction apprentices. Notably, the findings revealed that the prevailing views of training amongst instructors and their leaders, which endorse direct instructional strategies and uniformity, create barriers for opportunities to create and utilise more progressive learner-centred training strategies for construction apprentices. The findings related to the impact of the wearable simulations indicated that the use of hands-on simulations can be beneficial to the learning of construction apprentices. The simulations were found to be effective in developing the apprentices understanding of OH illnesses, as well as in changing some of their attitudes, particularly towards prioritising their health at work and adopting correct work practices, for example, wearing appropriate protective clothing when carrying out their work. In addition, the findings also showed that the simulations were largely perceived to be enjoyable, engaging and easier to understand compared to traditional training methods. However, challenges associated with the use of simulations were also identified, including the relatively high costs in terms of both time and money required in their development and implementation as well as challenges associated with trainer competence and adapting curricula to the newer training approach. Based on the empirical evidence and the related theoretical explanations, the study develops a set of propositions which not only challenge the current training paradigm, but more importantly identify the factors that can optimise the OH training of construction apprentices and overcome some of the barriers that were identified. In addition, a conceptual framework and typology of trainees learning styles are developed, in order to provide some practical guidance on how appropriate training strategies can be selected, as well as assist the wider application and integration of simulation learning tools.

The aim of diploma thesis was to create a sequence of snowboard exercises for primary school pupils. These exercises were then tested with children from Základní škola T. G. Masaryka Vimperk, aged 6 to 10 years. In order to create and test the methodical sequence, two winter training sessions were organized. The first five-day session for pupils from the 2nd to the 5th grade took place in December 2017, while the second session for children of the 1st grade was realized in January 2018. Both groups were directed in the same way. On the first day, exercises for getting to know the snowboard were implemented. The remaining days were then spent on the slope. By the last day of training, both groups were able to ride a slope using skidded turns. 58% of the pupils managed to learn frontside carved turns, while 42% learned backside carved turns. The main contribution of the diploma thesis is the sequence of exercises which can be used by teachers and trainers to teach snowboarding.

This study was conducted to find answers to whether younger children acquire the language easier if it has an older sibling. Does preschool teacher note that the younger children with older siblings generally have lighter or better language development than those who do not have it? The literature reveals the importance of having loved ones around when learning languages and that emotional attachment is crucial for language development. I apply socio-cultural perspective, and the development-ecological perspective that claims that learning is always embedded in and dependent on social relations of mutuality and interdependence. The methodological framework of the study is phenomenological and makes use of an unstructured interview and a questionnaire that calls for elaborated, written answers from preschool teachers. The results in both the interview and the questionnaire indicate that preschool teachers do not concur with scholars on the issue of the importance of siblings for successful language development. Instead, they claim that language learning is individual, and that it is the first-born child that tends to develop language skills with greatest ease.  I conclude that preschool teachers seem to lack knowledge about research done on this subject, but that it is also possible that their experiences and opinions could be the basis of future criticism of current research. / Den här studien genomfördes för att söka svar på om yngre barn tillägnar sig språket lättare om det har ett äldre syskon. Uppmärksammar förskollärare att de yngre barn som har äldre syskon generellt har en lättare eller bättre språkutveckling än de som inte har det? Litteraturen visar att det är viktigt att ha nära och kära runt sig, att känslomässig anknytning är avgörande för språkutvecklingen och att de yngre barnen i en familj har nytta av äldre syskon. Undersökningen tolkas genom det sociokulturella och utvecklingsekologiska perspektiv som har visat att vi lär oss i relation till varandra. Den metodansats som tillämpas är fenomenologisk och en ostrukturerad intervju och en enkät har använts för att söka reda på svaren på undersökningens frågor. Resultaten i både intervjun och enkäten visar att förskollärare inte upplever att yngre barn som har äldre syskon tillägnar sig ett bättre språk. De menar att tillägnandet av språket är individuellt och till och med att det är det första barnet som tycks tillägna sig ett bättre språk än vad yngre syskon gör. Förskollärarna verkar sakna kunskap om dessa forskningsresultat, men det kan också vara så att de intervjuade förskollärarnas erfarenheter och åsikter skulle kunna ligga till grund för en framtida kritik av nu aktuella forskningsrön.

The aim of presented diploma work was to determine effect of wrestling on the physical condition of pupils of the 1th level of elementary school. I settled tutorial of wrestling for this purpose on the basis of my personal experinece and experience of specialists applied to this subject (instructors and schoolmasters). Knowledge acquired during the preparation stage I developed subsequently in my diploma work. This tutorial could be applied not only by teachers of physical education but also by club trainers. Prior to the settling of tutorial it was necessary to test pupils and find out level of their initial motion ability. For this purpose I applied set of tests of motor efficiency and physical condition EUROFIT intended for the young. Gathered data have been annotated and treated. On the basis of obtained results I compiled resume about the effect of wrestling on the physical condition of pupils of the 1th level of elementary school.