The synthesis of nanostructured materials, especially metallic nanoparticles, has accrued utmost interest over the past decade owing to their unique properties that make them applicable in different fields of science and technology. The limitation to the use of these nanoparticles is the paucity of an effective method of synthesis that will produce homogeneous size and shape nanoparticles as well as particles with limited or no toxicity to the human health and the environment. The biological method of nanoparticle synthesis is a relatively simple, cheap and environmentally friendly method than the conventional chemical method of synthesis and thus gains an upper hand. The biomineralization of nanoparticles in protein cages is one of such biological approaches used in the generation of nanoparticles. This method of synthesis apart from being a safer method in the production of nanoparticles is also able to control particle morphology. In this study, a comparative biological synthesis, characterization and biomedical effects of metallic nanoparticles of platinum, gold and silver were investigated. Metallic nanoparticles were biologically synthesized using cage-like (apoferritin), barrel-like (GroEL) and non-caged (ribonuclease) proteins. Nanoparticles generated were characterized using common techniques such as UV-visible spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, inductively coupled optical emission spectroscopy, Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy and energy dispersion analysis of X-rays (EDAX). Nanoparticles synthesised biologically using apoferritin, GroEL and RNase with exhibited similar chemical and physical properties as thoses nanoparticles generated chemically. In addition, the metallic nanoparticles fabricated within the cage-like and barrel-like cavities of apoferritin and GroEL respectively, resulted in nanoparticles with relatively uniform morphology as opposed to those obtained with the non-caged ribonuclease. The enzymatic (ferroxidase) activity of apoferritin was found to be greatly enhanced with platinum (9-fold), gold (7-fold) and silver (54-fold) nanoparticles. The ATPase activity of GroEL was inhibited by silver nanoparticles (64%), was moderately activated by gold nanoparticles (47%) and considerably enhanced by platinum nanoparticles (85%). The hydrolytic activity of RNase was however, lowered by these metallic nanoparticles (90% in Ag nanoparticles) and to a higher degree with platinum (95%) and gold nanoparticles (~100%). The effect of synthesized nanoparticles on the respective enzyme activities of these proteins was also investigated and the potential neurotoxic property of these particles was also determined by an in vitro interaction with acetylcholinesterase. Protein encapsulated nanoparticles with apoferrtin and GroEL showed a decreased inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (<50%) compared with nanoparticles attached to ribonuclease (>50%). Thus, it can be concluded that the cavities of apoferitin and GroEL acted as nanobiofactories for the synthesis and confinement of the size and shape of nanoparticles. Furthermore, the interior of these proteins provided a shielding effect for these nanoparticles and thus reduced/prevented their possible neurotoxic effect and confirmed safety in their method of production and application. The findings from this study would prove beneficial in the application of these nanoparticles as a potential drug/drug delivery vehicle for the prevention, treatment/management of diseases associated with these enzymes/proteins.

In this thesis, the phenomena of the oxidative stress (OS) and anti oxidative stress responses in insects are described in a comprehensive review, and the outcomes of the experimental work are presented. The focus of the work was on defence reactions and their putative control by the adipokinetic hormone (AKH) and adenosine in the Drosophila melanogaster model. For this purpose, we studied the effect of the paraquat (oxidative stressor) treatment on adult flies and larvae carrying mutations in Akh (Akh1) and adenosine receptor (AdoR1) genes, and in both these genes together (Akh1 AdoR1 double mutant). The initial mortality tests revealed the double mutant Akh1 AdoR1 was more sensitive to OS than either of the single mutants. The AKH synthesis under the OS condition seems to be out of the gene expression control, since the increase of an AKH amount in CNS was not linked with the stimulation of Akh gene expression after a paraquat treatment. Further, the gene expression of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione S transferase D1 (GstD1) increased rapidly with OS, though the enzyme activity increased negligibly regardless of both the OS and mutations. Interestingly, the relative expression of GstD1 gene was minimal in the double Akh1 AdoR1 mutant; thus, it was concluded that both AKH and adenosine are employed in the GstD1 gene expression control. Similarly, AKH and adenosine seem to act in tandem in glutathione (GSH) regeneration, since the GSH level was significantly lower in all untreated deficient flies with the maximal effect in the Akh1 AdoR1 double mutant; accordingly, the reduction in the GSH level was enhanced by paraquat treatment. Altogether, the important roles of both AKH and adenosine in the anti oxidative stress response in D. melanogaster were demonstrated.

Two groups of growth regulators were described in Drosophila imaginal disc cell culture Cl.8+. Imaginal disc growth factors (IDGFs) belonging to chitinase-like protein family of carbohydrate binding proteins and Adenosine deaminase-related growth factors (ADGFs), which are active adenosine deaminases influencing homeostasis of key cellular metabolite adenosine. The functions of two of the IDGFs, as well as the effects of extracellular adenosine and its receptor were studied primarily in in vitro cell culture. Our results supported their roles in the regulation of cell survival and energy homeostasis especially in imaginal disc cells. Both the IDGFs and adenosine also play important roles in organismal responses to stress and infection and may interact in vivo.

O ATP extracelular modula a atividade sináptica do SNC através de receptores purinérgicos do tipo P1 e P2. Os purinoreceptores do tipo P1 (A1, A2A, A2B e A3) são mais eficientemente ativados por adenosina, enquanto que os purinoreceptores P2 são ativados por ATP. Os níveis da ATP e adenosina na fenda sináptica são controlados pela ação de uma cascata de enzimas chamadas ectonucleotidases. Dentre outros membros, essa família de enzimas é composta pelas ectonucleosídeo trifosfato difosfoidrolases (E-NTPDases), ectonucleotídeo pirofosfatase/fosfodiesterases (E-NPPs) e pela Ecto-5'- nucleotidase. Todos esses membros possuem funções específicas em uma variedade de situações fisiológicas, como por exemplo, o desenvolvimento cerebral e a cognição, ou parecem exercer algum papel na patofisiologia de doenças do SNC, tais como a epilepsia. Portanto, no presente estudo foi investigado (1) o mapeamento ontogenético das E-NPPs em diferentes regiões cerebrais, (2)a localização das E-NTPDases e E-5'-nucleotidase a nível sináptico e subsináptico em hipocampo e estriado de ratos, (3)a participação das E-NTPDases e E-5'-nucleotidase nos mecanismos neuroquímicos envolvidos no déficit cognitivo causado por convulsão neonatal em ratos adultos e (4) se o tratamento crônico com antagonistas não seletivos (cafeína) ou seletivos (KW6002) dos receptores A2A pode previnir os déficits de memória causados por convulsão neonatal em ratos adultos. Nossos resultados mostram uma ampla expressão relativa das E-NPPs durante todo o período de desenvolvimento cerebral. Além disso, as E-NTPDases e a E-5'-nucleotidase estão predominantemente localizadas nas sinapses, possuindo diferentes localizações pré e pós- sinápticas e diferentes associações glutamatérgicas e GABAérgicas. Nossos resultados também evidenciam que a hidrólise de ATP se encontra aumentada em ratos adultos que apresentaram déficit cognitivo após convulsão neonatal e que o consumo crônico de antagonistas dos receptores A2A (cafeína e KW6002) pode previnir o déficit cognitivo causado por crises epilépticas no período neonatal. Em resumo, essa tese mostra pela primeira vez a localização subsináptica das ectonucleotidases e correlaciona o sistema purinérgico com a maturação cerebral e com os déficits cognitivos induzidos por convulsão neonatal. Além disso, nossos resultados evidenciam que o consumo crônico de cafeína pode ser um provável agente profilático na prevenção de disfunções de memória na vida adulta associadas às crises convulsivas neonatais. / Extracellular ATP modulates the synaptic activity through P1 and P2 purinoceptors. Adenosine activates preferentially P1 receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3) and ATP activates preferentially P2. The levels of ATP and adenosine in the synaptic cleft are controlled by the action of an enzyme cascade named ectonucleotidases. Besides other members, this enzyme family is constituted by ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase), ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase (E-NPP) and Ecto-5'- nucleotidase. All these members have specific physiological functions in brain development and cognition or seem to have some role in the patophysiology of brain disorders, such as epilepsy. Therefore, in the present study, we have investigated (1) the expression mapping of E-NPPs in different brain regions during development, (2) the synaptic and subsynaptic localization of ENTPDases and E-5'-nucleotidase in hippocampus and striatum of rats, (3) the participation of E-NTPDases and E-5'-nucleotidase in the neurochemical mechanisms of memory dysfunction induced by neonatal seizure in adult rats, and (4) if the chronic intake of nonselective (caffeine) or selective (KW-6002) antagonists of A2A could prevent the cognitive impairment caused by convulsion in early life. Our results showed a wild relative expression of E-NPPs during brain development. In addition, E-NTPDases and E-5'-nucleotidase are predominantly localized in synapses, with different pre and post-localization and different glutamatergic and GABAergic associations. Our results also showed an enhanced ATP hydrolysis in adult rats with memory impairment induced by neonatal convulsion and a prevention of this kind of memory dysfunction by the chronic intake of A2A receptors antagonists (caffeine and KW-6002). In summary, this study showed the first evidence of subsynaptic localization of ectonucleotidases and correlates the purinergic system with brain maturation and with the memory impairment induced by one single seizure in early life. Besides, our results pointed to the chronic intake of caffeine as a possible prophylactic agent for the prevention of cognitive dysfunction in adulthood induced by a single seizure in the neonatal period.

Introdução: Estudos em animais e em humanos demonstram que o alto consumo de cafeína pode promover riscos e complicações obstétricas podendo resultar em eventos teratogênicos na prole, como alterações esqueléticas, retardo no crescimento intrauterino e baixo peso ao nascer e a partos prematuros. Embora a relação entre o consumo de cafeína durante a gravidez e seus efeitos tóxicos sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário venham sendo alvo de vários estudos, seus mecanismos ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos. Objetivos: avaliar os efeitos da utilização crônica de cafeína no período gestacional e neonatal sobre o desenvolvimento da prole, reflexos motores, comportamentos, resposta nociceptiva, atividade e expressão em hipocampo da acetilcolinesterase e, atividade de ectonucleotidases em medula espinhal de ratos. Métodos: o ciclo estral das ratas com aproximadamente 90 dias (peso 200-300 g) foi avaliado por meio de esfregaço de lavado vaginal. Sendo a prenhez confirmada, as ratas foram divididas em 3 grupos experimentais: (1) controle; (2) cafeína; e (3) abstido de cafeína. As ratas controles recebiam somente água, as do grupo cafeína recebiam 0,3 g/L de solução de cafeína diluída em água e as abstidas recebiam a mesma solução até o 7º dia de vida pós-natal (P7) da prole, sendo após substituída por água. O dia do nascimento foi considerado P0, padronizou-se 8 machos por ninhada. O comportamento de endireitamento postural e resposta a geotáxia negativa foram avaliados do P1 até P14 e utilizados como parâmetros dos reflexos motores da prole. No final do tratamento (P14) foram avaliados: (1) o limiar nociceptivo, utilizando aparelho de tail-flick; (2) a atividade locomotora no campo aberto (3) a funcionalidade dos receptores de adenosina, por meio da administração de agonistas e antagonistas adenosinérgicos; (4) hidrólise de nucleotídeos em sinaptossomas de medula espinhal; e (5) a atividade e a expressão gênica da enzima acetilcolinesterase em hipocampo. Os dados foram expressos em Média+Erro Padrão da Média (EPM), e analisados utilizando ANOVA de uma via/Tukey e ANOVA de duas vias de medidas repetidas/Tukey de acordo com cada experimento, as diferenças foram consideradas significativas quando P<0,05. Resultados: os animais dos grupos cafeína e abstido apresentaram um atraso no desenvolvimento dos reflexos neurológicos ao longo dos 14 dias de vida quando comparados ao grupo controle. No campo aberto, os animais do grupo cafeína apresentaram diminuição no tempo total de locomoção e cruzamentos externos em relação ao controle. O grupo abstido aumentou cruzamentos internos e diminuiu rearing. No teste de tail-flick, não observou-se diferença entre os grupos. Apesar de não haver diferença entre os grupos na resposta nociceptiva basal no teste de tail-flick, quando avaliamos a funcionalidade dos receptores de adenosina do tipo A1, observou-se que o grupo cafeína teve sua resposta diminuída ao agonista adenosinérgico (CPA) e o grupo abstido apresentou este efeito parcialmente revertido, demonstrando não ser um efeito de longa duração. No entanto, não foram observadas diferenças entre os grupos nas atividades de NTPDases e de 5’nucleotidase. Adicionalmente, observamos uma diminuição significativa na atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) em hipocampo dos animais cafeínados comparados aos controles sem diferenças em sua expressão gênica, sugerindo assim que a baixa atividade desta enzima esta relacionada a mudanças pós-traducionais. Conclusão: Nossos resultados demonstram que o uso de cafeína durante a gestação e lactação pode trazer prejuízos ao desenvolvimento da prole, salientando a importância da restrição de alimentos e preparações que contenham esta substancia durante estes períodos. / Introduction: Studies in animals and humans show that high consumption of caffeine can promote risks and obstetric complications may result in teratogenic events in the offspring, such as skeletal abnormalities, intrauterine growth retardation and low birth weight and premature births. Although the relationship between caffeine consumption during pregnancy and its toxic effects on embryonic development may be the target of several studies, its mechanisms are not fully understood. Objectives: the aim was to evaluate the effects of gestational chronic caffeine intake and neonatal offspring development, neurological reflexes, behavior, nociceptive response, acetylcholinesterase activity and expression in hippocampus and ectonucleotidases activity in spinal cord of rats. Methods: adult female Wistar rats were performed vaginal lavage to verify the estrous cycle. Mating was confirmed by sperm presence in vaginal smears. On the first day of pregnancy, rats were divided into three groups: (1) control, (2) caffeine and (3) washout. Control animals received only water; caffeine group received caffeine solution 0.3 g / L diluted with water and the washout group received the same caffeine solution until the 7th day (P7), which was replaced by water. The birth date was considered P0, animals were standardized at 8 male animals per group. The righting reflex (RR) and negative geotaxis (NG) behaviors were measured from P0 to P14 and were using as motor reflexes. At P14 were evaluated: (1) the nociceptive response by tail-flick latency (TFL); (2) locomotor activity by open field test (OF); (3) functionality of A1 adenosine receptors by agonist and an antagonist administration of DPCPX and CPA; (4) nucleotides and nucleoside hydrolysis by spinal cord synaptosomes and (5) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and gene expression in hippocampus. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM and analyzed using one-way ANOVA / Tukey and repeated measures ANOVA/Tukey, values were considered significant if P<0.05. Results: caffeine and washout groups presented a delay in the development of neurological reflexes over the 14 days of life when compared to the control group. In the open field, caffeine group showed a decrease in the total time of locomotion and outer crossing in relation to control. The washout group presented increase in inner crossing and decrease in rearing behavior. In the tail-flick test, no difference was observed between groups. Although there is no difference between the groups in baseline nociceptive response in the tail-flick test, when evaluating the functionality of A1 adenosine receptors, caffeine group presented a decreased response to adenosinergic agonists (CPA) and the washout group presented partially reversed of this effect, demonstrating it is not a long duration effect. However, no differences were observed between groups in the activities of NTPDase and 5'nucleotidase. Additionally, we observed a significant decrease in the activity of acetylcholinesterase in hippocampus of caffeine group compared to controls without differences in their gene expression, suggesting that the low activity of this enzyme is related to post-translational changes. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that caffeine intake during pregnancy and lactation can bring harm to the offspring developing. Therefore, it becomes increasingly important restriction of food and caffeine-containing preparations during the embryonic period.

In this thesis chromatographic conditions for the HPLC analysis of ribonucleotides AMP, ADP and ATP were optimized. For their separation chromatographic column, Nucleogel SAX 1000-8, 50 x 4,6 mm, from the German company Marcherey-Nagel was used. The mobile phase of a 0,2 mol/L solution of KH2PO4, its pH was adjusted with 1mol/L with potassium hydroxide to pH = 5,00. As the most suitable flow rate was selected 1,0 mL/min. The analysis was conducted using an isocratic elution. Detection was conducted by a DAD detector at a wavelength of λ = 260 nm. Substances were eluted in the following order AMP (tr = 0,911 min), ADP (tr = 1,667 min) and ATP (tr = 7,262 min). The total analysis time of the mixture of standards, under the conditions mentioned above, lasted for 10 minutes. For the extraction of adenosine-5-ribonucloetides the real matrix frozen and lyophilized leaves of tobacco virginia (Nicotiana tabacum L.) have been used. Two methods of extraction were applied. The first procedure was based on the extraction of AMP, ADP and ATP from the leaves of the tobacco plant by boiling deionized water. In the second method 0,07 mol/L HClO4 for the extraction instead of deionized water was used. Keywords: HPLC, adenosine ribonucleotides, AMP, ADP, ATP, tobacco virginia

Estudos têm demonstrado que o microambiente tumoral é rico em ATP e adenosina, sugerindo o envolvimento da sinalização purinérgica no desenvolvimento e/ou manutenção do câncer. Ainda, o receptor purinérgico P2X7, conhecido pelo seu papel na indução de apoptose, encontra-se reduzido em alguns tecidos tumorais em comparação aos tecidos saudáveis, indicando que a sua redução possa ser um mecanismo de resistência celular à apoptose. Dessa forma, compreender o papel da sinalização purinérgica no contexto do câncer se torna indispensável e permite que novas abordagens terapêuticas sejam implementadas. Nesse trabalho, avaliamos a função dos nucleotídeos e nucleosídeos da adenina, bem como do receptor P2X7 na indução da morte celular em células de câncer cervical. Também verificamos o efeito do heat shock na potencialização da atividade do receptor P2X7 frente à curta exposição ao ATP em células de câncer de cólon. De acordo com os nossos resultados, o efeito citotóxico do ATP extracelular nas linhagens de câncer cervical é mediado principalmente pela ação do seu metabólito adenosina, que ao entrar no interior das células, promove o aumento dos níveis intracelulares de AMP, ativação de AMPK, aumento da p53 e indução de autofagia. O papel do receptor P2X7 nesse contexto parece ser apenas coadjuvante, visto que o seu bloqueio ou silenciamento impediu em apenas 20% a morte celular. Além disso, utilizando células de câncer de cólon, nós demonstramos que o heat shock aumenta a funcionalidade do receptor P2X7, independente da interação com heat shock proteins ou canais do tipo conexina/panexina, potencializando o efeito citotóxico do ATP. Esse efeito parece estar relacionado à mudanças na composição e arquitetura da membrana celular, visto que o uso do agente fluidizador de membrana benzil álcool foi capaz de mimetizar o efeito do heat shock na potencialização do receptor P2X7 a 37ºC. Este estudo fornece evidências adicionais sobre o papel da sinalização purinérgica no contexto da biologia celular tumoral e abre novas perspectivas para o uso dos nucleotídeos de adenina associados a hipertermia como agentes adjuvantes na terapia do câncer. / The tumor microenvironment is rich in ATP and adenosine, suggesting an involvement for purinergic signaling in cancer development and surveillance. The P2X7 receptor, among the P2 purinergic receptors, is broadly recognized as the “death receptor”, because it promotes cell apoptosis when exposed to high levels of extracellular ATP. Researches have been shown that P2X7 protein levels are decreased at the tumor site in comparison to adjacent healthy tissue, suggesting a mechanism of tumor escape to cell death. Thus, understanding purinergic signaling in a cancer context becomes urgent and opens a new field for therapeutic strategies. Here, we evaluated adenine nucleotides and nucleosides cytotoxicity, as well as P2X7 role in cell death induction using cervical cancer cell lines. Indeed, we investigated heat shock effect on P2X7 functionality through exposing colon cancer cell shortly to ATP at 40ºC. According to our data, adenosine uptake formed from ATP metabolism is the main responsible for the extracellular ATP cytotoxicity in cervical cancer cells. While inside of the cell, adenosine is converted to AMP, leading to AMPK activation, p53 increase and autophagy induction. ATP induced cell death per se through P2X7 in this context seems to be less important, since P2X7 blockage or knocking down reduced only 20% of cell death. In colon cancer cells, we found that heat shock stress was able to increase P2X7 pore formation independently of heat shock protein interaction or native pore-forming transporters association (e.g pannexin-or connexin-type channels), thus leading to an increase ATP cytotoxicity. The mechanism enrolled in this process seems to be related to changes in the lipid composition and architecture of membrane, as the membrane fluidizer benzyl alcohol could reproduce heat stress effect in potentiating P2X7 activation at 37ºC. In conclusion, our work provides further evidence for a purinergic signaling role in the cancer biology context and opens new perspectives for the utility of purine-based drugs associated to hypertermia as adjunctive agents in cancer therapy.

Trichomonas vaginalis é o protozoário flagelado que parasita o trato urogenital humano causando a tricomonose, doença sexualmente transmissível (DST) de origem não viral mais comum no mundo. Durante a infecção a aquisição de nutrientes, como nucleotídeos púricos, pirimidínicos e ferro é essencial à sobrevivência do parasito. T. vaginalis não sintetiza de novo purinas e pirimidinas, dependendo de vias de salvação para aquisição destas moléculas. O ferro desempenha um papel crucial na patogenicidade da tricomonose, influenciando a expressão de múltiplos genes envolvidos na virulência. Nucleotídeos extracelulares, especialmente o ATP, são liberados em situações de estresse, anoxia ou injúria, atuando como sinalizadores pró-inflamatórios ao sistema imune. As enzimas NTPDase e ecto-5'-nucleotidase degradam ATP à adenosina, esta com ação anti-inflamatória. A enzima adenosina deaminase (ADA) degrada adenosina à inosina. A presença desta cadeia enzimática em T. vaginalis sugere a modulação das concentrações nucleotídeos/nucleosídeos durante a inflamação. A atividade da ADA foi caracterizada em T. vaginalis, porém há poucos relatos sobre a participação desta enzima na sobrevivência do parasito, bem como, a localização celular e o efeito de nutrientes essenciais na atividade enzimática e na expressão gênica. O estudo da localização da ADA em T. vaginalis foi realizado, indicando a presença da enzima na membrana celular e no citoplasma do trofozoíto. Avaliando-se o perfil da ADA de diferentes isolados de T. vaginalis em uma condição de limitação de soro bovino, o qual representa a fonte de adenosina aos trofozoítos, não se observou diferenças significativas na deaminação da adenosina à inosina. Na avaliação do efeito de diferentes fontes de ferro ou a privação deste cátion na atividade e na expressão gênica da ADA foi possível verificar uma diminuição da atividade e um aumento na expressão gênica após a privação do ferro, reforçando a hipótese que este elemento pode modular a atividade das enzimas envolvidas na sinalização purinérgica. Os resultados obtidos nesta dissertação permitem a avaliação de importantes aspectos da ADA, contribuindo para o melhor entendimento do sistema purinérgico em T. vaginalis e seu papel no estabelecimento e manutenção da infecção e consequente sobrevivência do parasito. / Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellate protozoan that parasitizes the urogenital human tract causing trichomonosis, the non-viral sexually transmitted disease (STD) most common in the world. During infection the acquisition of nutrients such as purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, and iron is essential to the parasite survival. T. vaginalis lacks de novo purines and pyrimidines synthesis depending on the salvation pathway for the acquisition of these molecules. Iron plays a crucial role in trichomonosis pathogenesis, influencing the expression of multiple genes involved in virulence. Extracellular nucleotides, especially ATP, are released during stress, injury or anoxia, acting as a pro-inflammatory signaling to the immune system. The enzymes NTPDase and ecto-5'-nucleotidase degrade ATP to adenosine with anti-inflammatory action. The adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme degrades adenosine to inosine. The presence of this enzymatic chain in T. vaginalis suggests the modulation of nucleotides/nucleosides concentrations during inflammation. The ADA activity was characterized in T. vaginalis, but there are few reports on the participation of this enzyme in the parasite survival, as well as the cellular localization and the effect of essential nutrients on enzyme activity and gene expression. The study of ADA localization in T. vaginalis was performed, indicating the presence of the enzyme on trophozoite cell membrane and cytoplasm. Evaluating the ADA profile in different T. vaginalis isolates in bovine serum limitation condition, which is the source of adenosine for the trophozoites, no significant differences were observed in the deamination of adenosine to inosine. Regarding the effect of different iron sources or iron deprivation in activity and gene expression of ADA, it was observed a decrease in activity and an increase in gene expression after iron deprivation, reinforcing the hypothesis that this element can modulate the activity of enzymes involved in the purinergic signaling. The results obtained in this study allow the assessment of important aspects of ADA, contributing to a better understanding of the purinergic system in T. vaginalis and its role in the establishment and maintenance of infection and consequent survival of the parasite.

This thesis characterizes adenosine signalization in Drosophila and describes response to adenosine in various cell types. Extracellular adenosine mediates most of its physiological effects through its receptors but recent data also indicate that adenosine transport also has important physiological functions. It was shown in this thesis that adenosine stimulates only cAMP second messenger system in Drosophila cells endogenously expressing AdoR. The pharmacological profile of the DmAdoR was established using the cAMP functional assay. The utility of the agonist 2-chloroadenosine and antagonist SCH58261 were examined in flies in vivo and compared with phenotypes of DmAdoR mutants. The responses of Drosophila cells to adenosine mediated by adenosine transport were also examined. Different cell types exhibited striking differences in adenosine uptake and adenosine recycling that were closely connected with the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. This thesis provides an important foundation for the study of interactions between adenosine receptor and adenosine transport.

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Medical BioSciences) / Central nervous system (CNS) infections are a therapeutic challenge. This is partly due to insufficient drug penetration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is a specialized, highly selective, metabolically active physiological barrier that regulates the movement of molecules into-and-out of the brain. As a result, large hydrophilic antibiotics such as colistin poorly penetrate to the CNS. Colistin is an old 'last line of defence'; a gram-negative antibiotic that has seen its clinical re-emergence due to the surge of multidrug resistance (MDR) infections. However, owing to systemic toxicity, increasing the intravenous dosage, in order to obtain higher CNS penetration, is inimical. Chitosan (CS) based nanoparticles (NPs) have been proposed as drug delivery systems across the BBB. CS is a cationic, natural polysaccharide that has the ability to be complexed with multivalent polymers like dextran (DS) thus forming CS-DS NPs. Naturally, CS has remarkable inherent features such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, ability to encapsulate poorly soluble drugs and it is favourable for endothelial cell uptake. However, polymeric NPs (even those derived from natural polysaccharides) have limited use due to toxicity. Considering the vital role of the BBB, toxicity would denote dire effects on CNS functioning. Therefore, treatment of CNS infections fringes on a deeper understanding of the interactions between drug delivery systems and the BBB.