Le droit des sociétés est marqué par un phénomène de "contractualisation", lequel témoigne de la multiplication de l'aménagement des rapports entre associés, qu'il concerne les modalités de direction de la société ou l'exercice de leurs prérogatives et obligations. Ces aménagements peuvent revêtir deux formes : l'une statutaire, l'autre extrastatutaire. L'étude du statutaire et de l'extrastatutaire en droit des sociétés se consacre donc à la comparaison de ces deux formes d'aménagement et propose d'identifier leurs deux traits caractéristiques : une finalité commune et un caractère distinct.Les actes statutaires et extrastatutaires partagent une finalité commune : ils concourent à la réalisation de l'opération sociétaire. Parmi tous les actes relatifs à la société, ils se caractérisent par leur but qui est de permettre à leurs signataires de satisfaire leurs intérêts spécifiques par le truchement de l'intérêt social, à savoir par la réalisation d'une entreprise commune en vue de l'enrichissement collectif des associés. Cette finalité commune exerce alors une influence sur leur régime juridique car les actes statutaires comme ceux extrastatutaires sont soumis aux règles du droit des sociétés. Cette influence se mesure surtout à l'égard des actes sociétaires extrastatutaires, lesquels sont tenus de respecter l'ordre public sociétaire, sont soumis à la lex societatis en droit international privé et relèvent de la compétence des tribunaux de commerce dans les sociétés commerciales. Même s'ils partagent une finalité commune qui permet leur rattachement à la catégorie des conventions sociétaires, les actes statutaires et ceux extrastatutaires n'en demeurent pas moins distincts. Classiquement, ces deux types d'actes sont distingués en considération d'un critère formel, à savoir selon leur localisation dans le document dénommé statuts ou à l'extérieur de celui-ci, mais celui-ci ne permet pas de saisir l'essence de cette distinction. Plus fondamentalement, il doit être distingué entre les aménagements du statut d'associé, applicable à toute personne ayant la qualité d'associé, et ceux extérieurs au statut, lesquels ne sont que l'expression des engagements personnels des associés et applicables à leurs seuls signataires. Le caractère statutaire d'une stipulation emporte alors deux conséquences spécifiques. Parce que le statut d'associé a vocation à s'appliquer à tout associé de manière identique, il peut être modifié à la majorité. Cette règle doit cependant être appliquée en tenant compte des situations de conflit d'intérêts susceptibles de se présenter lors de la création de différentes catégories d'associé ou de l'octroi d'avantages particuliers. Parce que le statut d'associé a vocation à s'appliquer à tout associé présent et à venir, seules les stipulations statutaires s'appliquent à l'acquéreur de titres sociaux. / Corporate law is characterized by a trend of "contracting", which reflects the multiplication of the systems of relationship between partners, whether this involves the management rules of a company or the application of their rights and obligations. These systems can take two shapes: statutory or non-statutory. The study of statutory and non-statutory in corporate law is devoted to comparing these two forms and identifying their two key features: a common purpose and a distinct nature.Statutory and non-statutory acts share a joint purpose : they contribute to the accomplishment of the corporation. Among all acts in connection with a company, they are characterized by their purpose which aim to enable their signatories to meet their specific interests through the interest of the corporation, i.e. through a joint enterprise targeting the joint enrichment of the partners. This common purpose influences their legal regime because both statutory as well as non-statutory acts are subject to corporate law. This influence can be mainly felt towards non-statutory acts, which have to comply with the corporate public order, are governed by the lex societatis in international private law and fall under the competence of commercial courts in business corporations. Even though they share a common purpose which makes them fall under the category of corporate agreements, statutory and non-statutory acts remain distinct. Traditionally, these two sorts of acts can be distinguished by applying a formal criteria, namely whether they can be found in the document named articles of associations or outside of those, but this criteria doesn't express the essence of this distinction. More fundamentally, one has to distinguish between the adjustments of the partners' statutes, which apply to any partner, and those outside the statutes, which only represent the personal commitment of the partners and only apply to the signatories. The statutory nature of a clause triggers two specific consequences. Since the partner statute is meant to apply equally to all partners, it can be modified with a majority vote. However, this rule must take into account potential conflicts of interest which can arise when creating different categories of partners or when granting special benefits. Since the status of partner is destined to apply to all present and future partners, only statutory clauses apply to the purchaser of ownership shares.

The main goal of the thesis is to explore basic methods which can be used to find semantically related scientific articles. All the methods are explained in detail, compared and in the end evaluated by the standard metrics. Based on the evaluation, a new method for computing semantic similarity of scientific articles is proposed. The proposed method is based on the current state-of-the-art methods and adds the another important factor for computing similarity - citations. Using citations is important, since they represent a static bond between the articles. Finally, the proposed method is evaluated on the real data and compared with other described methods.

Multimodal machine learning is a subfield of machine learning that aims to relate data from different modalities, such as texts and images. One of the many applications that could be built upon this technique is an image retrieval system that, given a text query, retrieves suitable images from a database. In this thesis, a retrieval system based on canonical correlation is used to suggest images for news articles. Different dense text representations produced by Word2vec and Doc2vec, and image representations produced by pre-trained convolutional neural networks are explored to find out how they affect the suggestions. Which part of an article is best suited as a query to the system is also studied. Also, experiments are carried out to determine if an article's date of publication can be used to improve the suggestions. The results show that Word2vec outperforms Doc2vec in the task, which indicates that the meaning of article texts are not as important as the individual words they consist of. Furthermore, the queries are improved by rewarding words that are particularly significant.

Medias roll i samhället är stor och den spelar en viktig roll i hur samhället ska kunna få ny information om vad som sker runt om i världen. Kvällstidningar rapporterar dagligen om politiska, kulturella och även brottsliga händelser som sker och nyheterna når tusentals människor som får ta del av det. Detta gör att media har ett stort ansvar på sina axlar med att utge opartiska, neutrala och informativa artiklar om det som ämnas att läsas. I denna studie undersöktes hur media framställer olika offer, baserat på den utsattes livssituation, plats för brottet samt vilket sorts brott de utsatts för. Studien genomfördes med hjälp av en tematisk analys, där tre kända fall i Sverige valdes ut för att sedan jämföra och analysera hur media framställer de brottsutsatta. Resultaten påvisar att media har en tendens att framställa brottsutsatta på olika sätt baserat på bland annat deras livssituation och deras bakgrund. Vidare visade det även att medias rapportering av brottsoffer kan vara mer omfattande beroende på hur väl en brottshändelse kan få andra människor att identifiera sig med den brottsutsatta och deras familj. / Media plays a big role in society and is partially responsible for how people in the society receives information about what is happening around the world. Newspapers are daily reporting about political, cultural and even criminal, events that occur, and the news is reached by thousands of people to read. This means that media has a lot of responsibility on their shoulders by giving out impartial, neutral and informative articles for people to read. In this study, we sought to investigate how media presents different types of victims, based on their life situation, the scene of the crime and also what type of crime they were victims of. The study was performed with a thematic analysis, where three known cases in Sweden was chosen, these were then compared and analysed in how they were presented in the media. The results of the study show that media have a tendency to present victims of crime different, depending on their life situation and their background. Furthermore, it showed that media's coverage on victims of crime can be more extensive, depending on how well a crime can make other people identify with the victim and its family.

Health and environmental risks associated with emissions of hazardous chemicals from articles, including everyday consumer products such as clothes and toys, have become widely acknowledged internationally, particularly in the EU. This thesis contributes to new understandings of how these risks are currently managed within the EU and recommends actions for ensuring a safe and sustainable use of chemicals in articles. Paper I provides an overview and comparative analysis of regulatory strategies for managing risks of chemicals in articles in the EU. The in-depth analysis, which is focused on the Toys Safety Directive, the RoHS Directive, and REACH, shows that the legislations differ significantly. Differences include e.g. what criteria are used for the selection of substances to be targeted for regulation, and the kind of requirements and restrictions applied to the selected substances. It is concluded that product-specific directives are important complements to REACH in order to ensure a safe use of chemicals in articles. Paper II evaluates to what extent the regulation of chemicals in articles under REACH is coherent with the rules concerning chemicals in the Sewage Sludge Directive (SSD) and the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The results show that the majority of the chemicals that are prioritized for phase-out under the WFD or for concentration restrictions in sludge and soil under the SSD are allowed to be used in articles according to REACH. In order to avoid end-of-pipe problems and to increase resource efficiency, it is argued that it is necessary to minimize the input of chemicals identified as hazardous to health or the environment into articles. Paper III aims to clarify what the substitution principle means and how it can reasonably be applied as part of chemical policies. A general definition is proposed that gives equal weight to hazard, functionality and economical considerations, while at the same time recognizing that the aim of the substitution principle is to reduce hazards to human health and the environment. This paper also summarizes major methods to promote and implement the principle, discusses legislative approaches with regard to their ability to promote substitution of hazardous chemicals, and makes proposals for an efficient implementation of the principle. / <p>QC 20121119</p>

Extractive text summarization has over the years been an important research area in Natural Language Processing. Numerous methods have been proposed for extracting information from text documents. Recent works have shown great success for English summarization tasks by fine-tuning the language model BERT using large summarization datasets. However, less research has been made for low-resource languages. This work contributes by investigating how BERT can be used for Norwegian text summarization. Two models are developed by applying a modified BERT architecture, called BERTSum, on pre-trained Norwegian and Multilingual BERT. The results are models able to predict key sentences from articles to generate bullet-point summaries. These models are evaluated with the automatic metric ROUGE and in this evaluation, the Multilingual BERT model outperforms the Norwegian model. The multilingual model is further evaluated in a human evaluation by journalists, revealing that the generated summaries are not entirely satisfactory in some aspects. With some improvements, the model shows to be a valuable tool for journalists to edit and rewrite generated summaries, saving time and workload. / <p>Examensarbetet är utfört vid Institutionen för teknik och naturvetenskap (ITN) vid Tekniska fakulteten, Linköpings universitet</p>

Digitalization has made it possible to consume news through both newspapers and social media, but we rarely consider if both platforms share the same news selection. This bachelor study aims to compare which agenda Dagens Nyheter conveys through the choices in the displayed news on the front page of the newspaper and the Instagram feed. The theoretical framework is based on gatekeeping theory, agenda-setting theory and news value theory. Using the quantitative content analysis 486 news articles were coded and analyzed whereof 182 were articles from the news front page and 304 were from the Instagram feed. The results show that hard and soft news are equally represented in the two news outlets. On the other hand, the results also indicate that there are differences regarding the centralization of certain topics, the nature of the news and the main actors. From these results, we conclude that different agendas are conveyed through the news reported between the two mediums.

År 2015 tvingades tiotusentals syrier på flykt till Sverige för att undkomma det inbördeskrig som härjade i Syrien. Under 2022 invaderas Ukraina av Ryssland vilket tvingade ukrainare på flykt till Sverige. Syftet med denna studie är att med en kritisk diskursanalys undersöka svenska nyhetstidningars framställningar av syriska flyktingar respektive ukrainska flyktingar. Fokus har legat på språket och hur dess tillämpningsformer kopplas samman med makt och sociala skillnader i samhället. Totalt har 20 artiklar utgjort materialet för analysen, vilka har hämtats från Aftonbladet och Dagens Nyheter. Fem artiklar per flyktinggrupp och tidning. En kodningsprocess har gjorts för att kunna identifiera mönster i artiklarna. Mönstren analyserades därefter från begreppet makt med utgångspunkt i Foucaults maktteori, Franzéns makttriangel samt begreppen etablerade och outsiders. De flesta av de analyserade artiklarna lyfte fram en solidaritet i mottagandet av ukrainska flyktingar och generaliserade dem i termer av "ukrainare". Syriska flyktingar porträtterades i stället i relation till hot och generaliserades i termer av "flyktingar". Framställningarna av syriska flyktingar visade på kulturella skillnader jämfört med Sverige där framställningen av ukrainska flyktingar i stället visade på kulturella likheter där en större acceptans för flyktingar från Europa synliggjordes. Med hjälp av en kritisk diskursanalys och vald teori kunde vi komma fram till en slutsats; syriska flyktingar framställs i vårt analyserade material annorlunda än ukrainska flyktingar, baserat på nationellt ursprung och religion. / In 2015, tens of thousands of Syrians were forced to flee to Sweden to escape the civil war in Syria. In 2022, Ukraine was invaded by Russia, forcing Ukrainians to flee to Sweden. The purpose of this study is to use a critical discourse analysis to examine Swedish newspaper's representations of Syrian refugees and Ukrainian refugees. The focus has been on language and how its forms of application are linked to power and social differences in society. A total of 20 articles made up the material for the analysis, which were taken from Aftonbladet and Dagens Nyheter. Five articles per refugee group and newspaper. The articles about Syrian refugees are from 2015 and the articles about Ukrainian refugees are from 2022. A coding process was carried out to identify patterns in the articles. The patterns were then analyzed from the concept of power based on Foucault's power theory, Franzén’s power triangle and the concepts established and outsiders.  Most of the analyzed articles highlighted a solidarity in the reception of Ukrainian refugees and generalized them in terms of “Ukrainians”. Syrian refugees were instead portrayed in relation to threat and generalized in terms of “refugees”. The portrayals of Syrian refugees showed cultural differences compared to Sweden. The portrayals of Ukrainian refugees showed cultural similarities, revealing a greater acceptance of refugees from Europe. With the help of a critical discourse analysis and selected theory, we were able to conclude; Syrian refugees, in our analyzed material, are presented differently than Ukrainian refugees, based on national origin and religion.

The present study is examining the representation of femicides in a selection of Greek newspapers. The aim of the study is to examine how victims of femicide and their perpetrators are being represented in the selected newspapers, which cases are receiving more attention and if the understanding of femicide as a term and a phenomenon has changed the last two decades. The method of the analysis is a qualitative content analysis of selected Greek newspapers. For the theoretical part, a feminist approach on intersectionality and femicide aided me with my analysis. What I found is the way victims, cases and perpetrators are represented has changed throughout the years. About the nature of the crimes, the term femicide began to be used the most recent years, but the understanding of femicides as a phenomenon has not changed drastically.

Liberal Arab thought has long been fighting for elbow room in the political discourse in Egypt. The ruling nationalist–statist ideology from Nasser to Mubarak is renown for its repression of political dissidents, and the Islamist opposition often side with the ruling elite in its resistance against liberal reformers and democratization. Political liberalism is associated with a host of professional andpersonal risks and many are silenced. The Arab Spring revolutions across the MENA from December 2010 throughout the spring of 2011, however, seem to have revived the interest for liberal ideas in the Arab world.This thesis investigates the impact of the Arab Spring on the liberal Arab discourse in Egypt. It asks whether the revolution has lead to increased opportunities for liberal Arabs to voice their opinions, and how the tone of the public debate has been affected. A discourse analytical researchmethod is used to scrutinize thirty opinion pieces from two major Egyptian newspapers in the timeframe November 2010–September 2011, on eight sample days. The work also considers 115 articles published after the revolution on the sample days to monitor the impact of the events on the public debate quantitatively.The study finds that the most salient feature after February 2011 in the op-ed material examined is the forming of the “Tahrir Square discourse,” a symbolically charged ideational entity that associates itself with liberal political rhetoric and values. It is a major influence during the stated period affecting 77% of the 115 post-revolution articles. The Tahrir Square discourse is an expression of a more permissive climate for voicing liberal and reform-friendly opinions, the thesis concludes. The empirical material exhibits more profuse mentioning of and advocacy for these values after the revolution. The tenor and rhetorical mode vary greatly in the studied articles; despite this, a broad support for the revolution itself is present. The study, however, is reluctant as to the permanence of these changes.