During the past few years a vast amount of research has been done to increase the understanding of the complex ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. Modelling and simulations are important tools to increase knowledge of the system. A suitable model must be simple to use and the parameters and variables needed in the model must be easy to access. In this paper a dynamical mass-balance model, CoastMab, which is validated for smaller coastal areas, has been used to predict concentrations and transports of phosphorus in three large coastal areas - the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Gdansk and the Gulf of Riga. CoastMab uses ordinary differential equations to regulate inflow, outflow and internal flows. To reflect seasonal variations in temperature and different types of flows the model has a temporal resolution of a month. The main purposes of this paper have been to evaluate CoastMab, predict the concentrations and the transports of phosphorus in each coastal area and to analyse how much and why the results differ from empirical data. The performed simulations show the importance of a correct calculation of the wave base. This is due to its influence on the division between surface and deep water as well as the division of areas of accumulation and areas of erosion and transport. The retention times of surface and deep water calculated by the model also is of great importance because of their direct influence on the flow of water between the study area and the sea outside the area. This together with the concentration of phosphorus determines the flow of phosphorus in and out of the study area. The dynamical mass-balance model is considered to work well in the three studied areas even though the areas are outside the model domain in several respects. Even if the predictions of the phosphorus concentration in the gulf of Riga was less accurate than in the other study areas, the prediction was inside the interval of standard deviation that has been calculated from empirical data. The major flow of phosphorus in the model was in the cross section between the Baltic proper and the modelled coastal area. Since the model is easy to use and requires only a small number of obligatory input variables it would be appealing to continue development of the model to handle coastal areas of the same size and larger than the study areas in this paper. / Under senare år har mycket forskning utförts för att öka förståelsen av det komplexa ekosystem Östersjön utgör. Viktiga redskap för att öka förståelsen för systemet är modellering och simulering. För att en modell ska vara lämplig att använda är det viktigt att den inte är för komplicerad och att de parametrar och variabler som används i modellen är lättillgängliga. I detta arbete har en dynamisk massbalansmodell, CoastMab, som är validerad för mindre kustområden använts för att modellera fosforkoncentrationer och fosforflöden i tre större kustområden - Finska viken, Gdanskbukten och Rigabukten. CoastMab reglerar genom ordinära differentialekvationer inflöden, utflöden och interna flöden. För att kunna hantera säsongsvariationer i temperatur och olika typer av flöden har modellen en temporär upplösning på en månad. Syftet med arbetet har främst varit att se hur väl CoastMab predikterar fosforkoncentrationen och fosforflöden inom respektive område, samt att analysera hur mycket och varför prediktionerna skiljer sig från empiriska data. De simuleringar som utfördes visade att djupet på den teoretiska vågbasen, som modellen beräknar, är av stor betydelse eftersom den i sin tur bestämmer fördelningen yt- och djupvatten samt fördelningen av ackumulationsbottnar och erosions- och transportbottnar. De utbytestider för yt- och djupvatten som modellen beräknar är också av största vikt eftersom de har en direkt inverkan på vattenflödet mellan studerat område och havet utanför, vilket i sin tur tillsammans med fosforkoncentrationen bestämmer fosforflöden in och ut ur det studerade området. Den dynamiska massbalansmodellen kan anses fungera väl för samtliga tre studerade områden, trots att de ligger utanför modellens domän i flera avseenden. Även om prediktionen av fosforkoncentrationen i Rigabukten blev sämre än för de två övriga områdena, låg prediktionen inom det intervall för standardavvikelsen som beräknats utifrån empiriska data. De största fosforflödena i modellen förekom för samtliga områden i gränssnittet mellan egentliga Östersjön och det modellerade kustområdet. Enkelheten i att använda modellen och det låga antalet obligatoriska drivvariabler gör att den är väl värd att utveckla för att hantera områden av samma eller större storlek än de nu studerade områdena.

I denna uppsats undersöks det hur det fungerar med enskilda avlopp utanför kommunens VA-nät. Hur enskilda avlopp är uppbyggda och hur de fungerar. Varför man bör ha avloppsrening, och vilka lagar och regler som styr enskilda avlopp. Jag utreder vidare varför man ska jobba för en ökad rening av avlopp och varför man ska jobba mot att uppnå ett uthålligt samhälle. Uppsatsen har en teoridel som handlar om hur och varför vi ska sträva efter en uthållig samhällsutveckling. En strävan som kommuner som Söderköping har när dom försöker få människor att byta till hållbara VA-system. Med dom här funderingarna som bakgrund och ett antal frågeställningar har jag skrivit en fyllig bakgrund som går igenom Östersjöns problematik och även relevant information om enskilda avlopp. Jag går igenom varför vi behöver en bra rening och hur man kan jobba för att uppnå en bättre rening. Bakgrunden ger en grund för att jag ska kunna genomföra min undersökning på ett bra sätt. I resultat delen undersöker jag hur Söderköpings kommun och Allren arbetar med enskilda avlopp. Jag valde Söderköpings kommun för att det är en kustnära kommun som av den anledningen alltid brottas med att inte få ut läckage av näring i Östersjön. Och det märks att dom har tagit detta ämne på allvar då dom jobbar för att skapa recirkulation av näringen genom exempelvis urinsorterande system. I slutet av uppsatsen har jag diskussions delar där jag flätar samman uppsatsen och för en diskussion om vad jag har kommit fram till och vad jag har för åsikter om arbetet med enskilda avlopp. Uppsatsen avslutas med att jag har med en didaktik del. En didaktisk del som gör det möjligt att lära ut de kunskaper man besitter efter en uppsats.

L'espace baltique est souvent cité comme l’archétype d’un espace transnational construit par des réseaux. Depuis la chute du Rideau de fer, les acteurs locaux et européens ont régulièrement convoqué le passé fantasmé de la Hanse médiévale, une association de marchands créée au XIIe siècle, afin d’établir une prétendue unité de la région. Davantage que la volonté de rapprocher des territoires avant tout concurrents, l'existence d'une multitude de forums baltiques traduit surtout la difficile adaptation des acteurs locaux à de nouvelles dynamiques relevant de la mondialisation économique et de l'européanisation politique. Depuis les années 1980, marquées par une recomposition du rôle des États, les autorités municipales ont la possibilité de mener une politique internationale plus autonome et de porter leurs actions à des niveaux inédits. Encore faut-il que les municipalités concernées disposent d'une masse critique suffisante et d'une localisation avantageuse. Les réseaux de villes forment un espace intermédiaire permettant aux territoires périphériques de l'espace baltique de développer des stratégies dans et avec les niveaux géographiques. Il n'existe pas un seul modèle de recomposition interterritoriale mais une multitude de stratégies et de parcours, dont l'espace baltique, traversé de nombreuses discontinuités, peut témoigner. Au-delà d'une géopolitique classique centrée sur les relations interétatiques, l'étude des municipalités riveraines invite à considérer la diversité des modèles d'inscription dans des dynamiques mondiales et européennes qui ne constituent pas des processus linéaires et monolithiques. / The Baltic Sea area is often quoted as the archetype of a transnational space achieved through networks. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, local and European stakeholders have frequently relied on the fantasized history of the Hanseatic League, a mediaeval association of merchants created in the 12th century, in order to foster the idea of a unified region. Rather than a desire to bring together territories that are essentially rivals, the existence of numerous Baltic forums suggests the difficulty local stakeholders have in adapting to the new dynamics of economic globalization and political Europeanization. Since the 1980s, a period that was characterized by a change in the role of States, city authorities have been able to launch more autonomous international policies and extend the scope of their actions to unprecedented levels, the condition being that the cities in question have a sufficient critical mass and enjoy an attractive location. City networks make up an intermediary space allowing the territories bordering the Baltic Sea to develop strategies within and together with various geographical levels. With its many disparities, the Baltic Sea area exemplifies not one single model of rescaling, but a vast number of inter-territorial strategies and approaches. Beyond classical geopolitics based on inter-state relations, the study of the cities bordering the Baltic Sea leads to the idea that there is a great variety of ways in which they participate in both global and European dynamics that are not linear or monolithic processes.

Antifouling paints are applied on vessels to prevent growth of fouling organisms such hasbarnacles. Presently, there are a number of different paints available on the Swedish marketwith different strategies and active substances. The paints might work by either continuouslyreleasing biocides or physically by peeling off or provide an easily cleansed surface whereorganisms cannot attach. The physically working paints do not need to register an activesubstance since its purpose is not to affect living organisms by a chemical or biological modeof action. In this study, two commercially available paints, the copper-based Fabi 3959(International Paint Ltd) and physically eroding, biocide-free labelled Mille Light (HempelFärg AB) were compared to Hard Racing superior, containing copper and the forbiddensubstance Tributyltin. Fabi International is only allowed to be used on the Swedish west coastdue to 6% added as active substance while the biocide-free Mille Light is eligible for eastcoast usage. The toxic effect from respective paint was investigated by assembling a growthinhibition test with the red macro alga Ceramium tenuicorne. The results show that all thestudied paints had a negative effect on growth and therefore leaked substances inconcentrations high enough to be harmful to the alga. The toxic response differed with theeffect on growth being in the following order, Hard racing superior>Fabi >Mille Light.Implications regarding the current legalization involving biocide-free labelled antifoulingpaints are discussed.

Despite early initiatives during the 1960s and 1970s, and continuing efforts ever since, the Baltic Sea remains in poor condition. The Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) is the governing body tasked with protecting the marine environment from further deterioration through intergovernmental collaboration between the Baltic Sea states and the EU. In 2007, HELCOM launched a new tool – the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP), of which the so-called ecosystem approach is a cornerstone. However, how and why the BSAP reform was launched, and also what consequences such management reforms can have for transboundary resource management, is unknown. By using institutional theory, organizational theory and the advocacy coalition framework, in combination with content analysis of official documents derived from HELCOM, this thesis argues that the BSAP is the end result of a gradual process of change within institutional structures and actor beliefs. This thesis also shows that HELCOM's capacity to detect, process, and react in response to changes in its regulatory objective has not changed as a consequence of the BSAP. In contrast to earlier research, it seems HELCOM responds better to slow and opaque changes than to quick and visible ones. Finally, by comparing HELCOM with two other similar cases, the thesis shows that HELCOM's adaptive capacity could be improved in line with the recommendations of the ecosystem approach. This thesis illustrates the importance of studying the emergence of new tools for governing transboundary resources from several theoretical perspectives. The thesis uses an innovative quantitative content analysis and concludes that new methods might be required to enable such studies. The different perspectives used here give various explanations concerning the causes and consequences of the BSAP. In a future Baltic Sea, where environmental changes are likely to be abrupt, a multitude of understandings regarding the governance of the Baltic Sea will be crucial. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: In press.</p>

In response to the drastic decline of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla (L.)) fisheries have been reduced and elvers are stocked in areas where natural abundances are low. Are these measures adequate? To answer different aspects of this question, we have analysed more than a century of eel tagging, using both traditional and more novel capture – recapture analyses. Based on these long-term data, we have evaluated the impact of the Swedish eel coastal fisheries using Survival analysis. Our analysis indicates that the fishing mortality just prior the 2009 fishing restrictions were in the order of 10%. More recent tagging programs have focused on issues related to the fate of stocked fish. If and how they migrate out of the Baltic Sea and further on towards the Atlantic Ocean. Both earlier and our new studies reveal that all eels recaptured on the Swedish East Coast, no matter of their origin, migrate at a reasonable speed and direction towards the outlets of the Baltic Sea. Even though it is sometimes difficult to determine their origin, our analyses indicate that stocked fish were scarce among the recaptures. In an experiment on the Swedish West Coast, we knew the individuals’ origin (stocked or wild) and they had similar migration patterns. In contrast, silver eel in Lake Mälaren – assumed to have been stocked as elvers or bootlace eels – seemed to have difficulties in finding the outlets. Instead they overwintered and lost weight. However, weight losses are also significant among non-stocked individuals in the Baltic Sea, both if they overwinter and if they appear to be on their way out from the area. It remains an open question whether eels from the Baltic region in general, and whether the overwintered fish in particular, manage to reach the spawning area in the Atlantic Ocean. Based on current knowledge, I advocate invoking the precautionary approach and to concentrate Swedish eel stockings to the West Coast and allow the young fish to spread out on their own. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript.</p><p> </p>

Denna studien har gjorts på blåmusslor, Mytilus edulis trossulus, för att undersöka effekter av det antidepressiva läkemedlet Citalopram på blåmusslans fysiologiska funktioner. Blåmusslan är en vanligt förekommande art i Östersjön där den fungerar som en nyckelart som; bidrar till den biologiska mångfalden, är långt ner i näringskedjan och är anpassningsbar. Dessa egenskaper gör den även lämpad som testorganism i denna studie. Citalopram är ett av Sveriges vanligaste läkemedel för att behandla psykisk ohälsa och den verkar genom att blockera återupptaget av serotonin i hjärnan och ingår i läkemedelsgruppen serotoninhämmare (SSRI). Serotonin påverkar flera olika funktioner i kroppen såsom rörelseförmåga, sinnesstämningar och mättnadskänsla. Läkemedel inklusive Citalopram återfinns i sjöar och vattendrag, detta för att läkemedel inte renas bort i våra reningsverk och för att det idag inte finns några krav på läkemedelsrening i svenska avloppsreningsverk. Läkemedel tillverkas för att vara aktiva vid låga koncentrationer vilket gör att de även har en negativ effekt på marina organismer. I denna studie har vi analyserat effekter av Citalopram på blåmusslans fysiologiska funktioner genom tre analyser, filtrering, rörelse och produktion av byssustrådar i tre olika koncentrationer (0 ng/l, 20 ng/l och 200 ng/l). Analyserna utfördes under två tidsperioder, exponering av läkemedel under 96 timmar samt remediering utan läkemedel under 72 timmar. Studien visar en signifikant skillnad i filtrering (P-värde = 0.04416) mellan grupperna under exponeringen där fler blåmusslor som var exponerade för 200 ng/l visade en lägre filtreringsaktivitet (fler individer var helt stängda). Under remedieringen observerades en signifikant högre mortalitet bland blåmusslor som exponerats för 200 ng/l (P-värde = 0.01347). Blåmusslor exponerade för 200 ng/l Citalopram visade även en lägre produktion av byssustrådar (P-värde= 0.02702). I den här studien kan vi se att läkemedlet Citalopram har en negativ påverkan på flera av blåmusslans fysiologiska funktioner. / The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the antidepressant drug Citalopram on blue mussels, Mytilus edulis trossulus, in the Baltic Sea. The blue mussel is a common species that is considered a key species in the Baltic Sea as it contributes to biodiversity, and is adaptable which makes it suitable as a test organism in this study. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most commonly prescribed antidepressants and a common SSRI substance is Citalopram. This substance is one of Sweden's most common drugs for treating mental illness. Serotonin affects several different functions in the body such as movement, mood and saturation. Many pharmaceuticals including Citalopram are found in lakes and streams, this is because pharmaceuticals are not purified in our wastewater treatment plants and there is no requirements for filtration of pharmaceuticals in Swedish wastewater treatment plants as of today. Pharmaceuticals are manufactured to be active even at low concentrations, a negative side effect of this is that it is also active in the environment causing negative effects on marine organisms. In this study, we analyzed the effects of Citalopram on the physiological functions of the blue mussel by three analyzes; filtration, movement and production of byssus threads using three different concentrations (0 ng /l, 20 ng/l och 200 ng/l) of Citalopram. The analyzes were carried out over two time periods, exposure of drugs for 96 hours and remediation without drugs for 72 hours. The study shows a significant difference in filtration (P-value = 0.04416) between the groups during exposure, where more blue mussels that were exposed to 200 ng/l showed a lower filtration activity (more individuals completely closed). During the remediation, a significantly higher mortality was observed among blue mussels exposed to 200 ng/l (P value = 0.01347). Blue mussels exposed to 200 ng/l Citalopram also showed lower production of byssus threads (P value = 0.02702). In this study we can see that the drug Citalopram has a negative effect on several of the blue mussel's physiological functions.

Une forte structure génétique a été décrite dans la littérature parmi les populations européennes de la coque de lagune Cerastoderma glaucum. Cependant, les limites géographiques entre les grandes divisions génétiques varient d'un marqueur à l'autre et leur faible nombre ne permettait pas de tester réellement les échanges génétiques entre ces groupes. Le but principal de cette thèse était donc d'estimer la structure des populations de C. glaucum à l'aide de marqueurs, en considérant les rôles respectifs de la divergence passée et de la fragmentation de l'habitat. Pour atteindre ses objectifs, des populations des côtes atlantiques et méditerranéennes ont été étudiées en utilisant : i) des marqueurs génétiques classiques (un EPIC et des marqueurs microsatellites déjà publiés); ii) des séquences associées à des sites de restriction (“restriction associated DNA sequences”) ou RADseq. Alors que les marqueurs génétiques classiques ont révélé le caractère divergent des populations de Méditerranée orientale, l'approche RADseq a permis de reconstruire les relations phylogénétiques entre groupes au sein de l'espèce avec une résolution jamais encore ateinte. Trois lignées profondément divergentes ont ainsi été identifiée au sein de C. glaucum: une en Mer Egée – Mer Noire, une en Mer Ionienne et la dernière largement distribuée de la Méditerranée à la Baltique. Cette dernière lignée c'est par ailleurs sous divisée en entités isolées en Méditerranée Occidentale, en Atlantique, en Mer du Nord et an Baltique. Comparée à l'espèce soeur C. edule, qui profite d'un habitat moins fragmenté, C. glaucum présente une beaucoup plus forte différenciation génétique entre populations. Il semble donc que des incompatibilités génétiques, conséquences de l'isolement géographique et de l'adaptation locale, aient pu être à l'origine d'un complexe d'espèces. Ces résultats soulignent par ailleurs le rôle évolutif particulier de l'habitat lagunaire, accélérateur de la diversification génétique. / Previous studies found a high level of genetic structuring among the European populations of the lagoon cockle Cerastoderma glaucum. However, the geographic locations of the major genetic divisions differed among markers and the small number of genetic markers used lacked the power to test for gene flow between divergent clusters. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to assess the population structure of C. glaucum using new genetic markers in the light of the respective role of past divergence and habitat fragmentation. To reach these objectives, populations from the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts have been investigated using: i) classical genetic markers (EPIC together with previously published microsatellites); ii) restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq). When the classical genetic markers revealed the divergent character of Eastern Mediterranean populations, the RADseq approach allowed inferring phylogenetic relationships with an unprecedented resolution. Three deeply divergent lineages were described within C. glaucum: one in the Aegean-Black Sea region, one in the Ionian Sea, and the last one widely distributed from the Western Mediterranean to the Baltic Sea. This last lineage underwent further diversification with isolated entities detected in Western Mediterranean, Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic Sea. Compared to the sister species C. edule, which thrives in a less fragmented habitat, C. glaucum displayed a much stronger genetic differentiation among populations. Consequently, it seems that genetic incompatibilities, which emerged as a by-product of geographic isolation together with local adaptation, led to the origin of a species complex. These results highlight the evolutionary role of lagoon habitats, where genetic diversification can proceed very quickly.

A phenomenon during the late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age which in its simplest form could be called ‘a culture of the Baltic Sea’ is an idea which many archaeologists have favoured. However, the term ‘a culture of the Baltic Sea’ is not the most ideal to use when discussing the Baltic Sea during this time in prehistory, as the term is rather simplifying from what would be the more diverse truth. The term entails that there should have been a cultural homogeneity across the Baltic Sea as it most certainly was not. This thesis complicates this otherwise simplified term and calls the cultural phenomenon ‘a cultural hybrid of the northern Baltic Sea area’ (i.e. the northern part of the Baltic Sea including its neighbouring gulfs). A cultural hybrid, in this sense, allows there to be cultural differences within an area. These differences are accepted by the people within the cultural hybrid which in turn allow people to live among each other, rather than to become a social obstacle making the people separate into smaller and more homogenous cultural groups. This assumed existence of a cultural hybrid is put to the test as a hypothesis. To answer the hypothesis, the cultural hybrid is studied from the perspective of the tarand-graves (an Estonian originating grave type erected and used around the shores of the northern Baltic Sea area during 500 BC–500 AD) which in turn is interpreted according to ritual practice theory. The hypothesis is proven to be true which makes it possible to apply the concept of cultural hybridity, and its connection with tarand-graves in the northern Baltic Sea area, to the Åland Islands. Although the islands have a very promising geographical position in the middle of the northern Baltic Sea area, interestingly, no tarand-graves have been registered there. Grave field Ec 6.6 on the western side of the Åland Islands becomes the object of study mainly due to grave 14, which placed on that particular grave field, carries a high tarand-grave potential. The material is partly collected from two field visits to Ec 6.6 and partly from an excavational report from 1949 of the same grave field. The result shows that the Åland Islands, as well as Ec 6.6, have a very high likeliness of being hosts for tarand-graves.

Through social landscape theory the aim of this thesis is to broaden the understanding of the bronze age monumental graves on the coast of Norrland. Questions about similarities between the stone ship settings and long cairns are analysed by looking at size and placement in the landscape. This shows the possible connections between the two construction types and were questioned throughout the process of writing. A reconstructed shoreline set to Late Nordic Bronze Age period IV, has been analysed by looking at the monuments placement to see possible connections through a maritory between Norrland and southern Sweden. In this thesis I have incorporated some instances of Gotlandic as well as other stone ship settings and long cairns from the Baltic Sea area, to strengthen the point of a possible maritory that connected the societies of northern Sweden with the societies placed around the Baltic Sea. The long cairns can be found in Gävleborg’s county from Söderala parish along the coast all the way up to Byske parish in Västerbotten’s county and seem to be constructed in a way that follow the shape of the mountain, with some anomalies. Stone ship settings can usually be found along the mouth of rivers and are placed more specific in the environment, where the orientation seems to relate to the ancient shoreline and in some cases the monument even point towards plausible routes that would be possible to follow with a ship inland. There is a clear concentration of all monument types in Västernorrland’s county, more specifically around the area of Docksta. The placement of the monuments above sea level in relation to the ancient shoreline, seems to be varied, with no clear rule of what height they should lay on. Many similarities can be found between the two, yet so many differences that only can be answered by excavations of more monuments. Further research and excavations is needed in Norrland with focus on the Bronze Age, which is crucial for the understanding of Sweden’s northern coastal areas and the trade across the Baltic Sea.