Poverty is a condition where people's basic needs for food, clothing and shelter are not being met. Poverty is generally of two types: absolute and relative poverty. Some of the causes of poverty include changing trends in a country’s economy, lack of education, high divorce rate which causes feminisation of poverty, having a culture of poverty, overpopulation, epidemic diseases such as AIDS and malaria, and environmental problems such as lack of rainfall (business dictionary.com). / Dissertation (PhD (Applied Theology))--University of Pretoria, 2014. / Centre for Contextual Ministry / PhD (Applied Theology) / Unrestricted

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After a general overview of the persecution of Gypsies (Roma) during World War II, this thesis focuses on the situation of Gypsies on the territory of Serbia and Croatia. The two republics are chosen because of their unique structures during the years 1941 to 1945. Both republics had puppet regimes set up by Germany; however, Croatia was an ally to Germany and strove to mirror the Third Reich in all its policies. The regime's head, Ante Pavelic, was known as one of the most brutal and merciless men on the territory of Yugoslavia, and with him Croatian paramilitary forces committed great atrocities in concentration camps established in Croatia. Serbia was divided up among Germany and its allies, and its racial policies varied depending on the occupying forces. In Croatia, all Gypsies were annihilated, but in Serbia many survived because of the protection provided by local peasantry and occupying forces from Hungary, Bulgaria or Italy. The thesis points at four main findings: (1) the negligence toward the Gypsies' plight and persecution; (2) the fact that, according to Nazi definitions, the persecution of Gypsies was based on their race rather than their style of living; (3) the fact that there were multiple concentration camps throughout the territory of Yugoslavia, with the most brutal camp at Jasenovac in Croatia; and (4) the fact that the Holocaust was far more than a Jewish phenomenon. Examining the two regions and highlighting them, the thesis proves that the fate of Gypsies in German-occupied territories of Yugoslavia was the same as the fate of Jews, that they were persecuted under superficial excuses, but with racial sentiments as the primary motivation. This new material, along with little known facts, documents, and stories show how marginalized Gypsies have been since the end of the war, and how little scholarly attention has been paid to their suffering. These new and some unpublished materials also help depict the brutality of Jasenovac, the Auschwitz of the Balkans, and prove that the atrocities during World War II were not committed only by German soldiers, but that they reached their peak among people of other nationalities as well. Finally, the thesis claims that Gypsies deserve to be placed in the study of the Holocaust along side of Jews, and to receive the rights and remembrance that Jews have been afforded.

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Der folgende Text bezieht sich auf Ereignisse im Jahr 2015, als die Straßen und Plätze Europas mit temporären Camps und Demonstrationen von Geflüchteten besetzt waren. Gleichzeitig mit der Überforderung, dem Versagen der staatlichen Institutionen bei der Sicherung der Grundbedürfnisse der Ankommenden, gab es massive Mobilisierung freiwilliger Unterstützung sowie neue Formen der Selbstorganisation und zahlreiche lokale Solidaritätsinitiativen. Als Teil der Berliner Gruppe metroZones habe ich im Jahr 2015 – unabhängig, aber doch parallel zu den Ereignissen an den Grenzen und in den Zentren Europas – das Modellprojekt „metroZones Schule für städtisches Handeln“ konzipiert und koordiniert. Die Idee der Schule war es, stadttheoretische Ansätze mit Methoden der Stadtforschung und aktivistischen Praktiken zusammenzubringen, sie zu diskutieren und zu erproben, mit dem Ziel die Stadtgesellschaft aktiv mitzugestalten. Im November 2015 verband sich die „metroZones Schule“ mit der damals aktuellen Situation der Geflüchteten bei der Demonstration „Never Mind the Papers“ an einem Wochenende in Hamburg.

In mid-April 1945, US and UK forces swept through Germany. The Western Allies had spent years preparing for the moment, cultivating a civil affairs capacity since the Interwar Period and devoting thousands of hours to planning for the occupation. However, the rapid pace of the advance stretched the new capability beyond its limits as frontline forces seized large swaths of Germany and encountered exponentially increasing numbers of displaced persons. The accidental discoveries of Buchenwald and Bergen-Belsen and the tens of thousands of survivors suffering appalling levels of starvation and disease overwhelmed the forces dispatched to address the sites, resulting in a sluggish response. Significant flaws in Allied planning assumptions caused the breakdown that potentially cost hundreds of unnecessary deaths. Yet, operational staff officers from the Supreme Headquarters down to the division level recognized the poor response and, in two short weeks, adapted the plan to address the conditions on the front. Policy adjustments and messages from General Eisenhower removed ambiguity in existing guidance and provided clear direction to frontline forces. More importantly, the Western Allies formally merged the campaign plan guiding combat operations, OVERLORD, with the plan for occupation, ECLIPSE. The changes produced a marked improvement in the US liberation of Dachau on 29 April 1945, thereby demonstrating adaptation and innovation at the operational level of war.

Cette thèse de doctorat en littérature et arts de la scène et de l’écran examine les écritures scéniques de la catastrophe humaine dans le théâtre contemporain. Elle explore les dynamiques qui sous-tendent la représentation de la barbarie au sein de formes spectaculaires marquées par une forte dimension visuelle. Divisé en deux volets – un premier, critique et un second, pratique –, le travail s’articule d’abord autour d’un corpus composé de trois spectacles : Kamp du collectif Hotel Modern, Rwanda 94 du Groupov et Rouge décanté signé par Guy Cassiers. En observant les œuvres à la lumière de la complexité et en les abordant à l’aide d’une approche systémique, l’étude tente de révéler les mouvements – esthétiques, perceptifs et thématiques – qui animent ces écritures hétérogènes. La seconde partie de la thèse rend compte d’un processus d’expérimentation mené dans l’espace scénique. Ce dernier, consacré à esquisser une création artistique originale, questionne les mémoires occidentales du génocide des Tutsi du Rwanda. L’expérience pratique fait écho à plusieurs des problématiques soulevées par l’investigation critique et propose une autre forme de réflexion, menée directement sur le plateau. Mots clés : Théâtre contemporain, Recherche-création, Complexité, Génocide, Images, Europe. / This doctoral thesis in performing arts looks into scenic writings of human disasters in contemporary theatre. It examines dynamics underlying the representation of barbarism within spectacular forms imprinted with a visual dimension. Split into two parts – a first one, critical and a second one, practical -, the work is firstly structured around a corpus composed of three shows : Kamp of the Hotel Modern group, Rwanda 94 of Groupov and Rouge décanté by Guy Cassiers. Through the observation of the works in the light of the complexity and by analysing it with a systemic approach, the study attempts to reveal the moves – aesthetic, perceptive and thematic – that drive these heterogeneous writings. The second part of the thesis deals with a process of experimentation led in the scenic space. The latter, dedicated to outline an original artistic creation, questions occidental memories on the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda. The practical experience echoes back to several issues raised by the critical investigation and proposes another form of reflection, directly led on the stage. Keywords : Contemporary theatre, Research-creation, Complexity, Genocide, Images, Europe.

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2019-2020. / Prenant comme ancrage le contexte actuel de diminution de l'aide humanitaire amenée aux réfugiés installés du côté thaï de la frontière thaïe-birmane, cette recherche vise à documenter la (ré)organisation des stratégies de subsistance des réfugiés karen vivant dans cette région en réaction à la diminution de l'aide humanitaire qu'ils reçoivent. Le cadre théorique sousjacent cette recherche est l'approche des livelihood adaptée au contexte spécifique des réfugiés, auquel est ajouté l'espoir comme élément analytique permettant de considérer dans l'analyse l'imagination, les projets et les visions du futur des réfugiés. Les résultats montrent que les stratégies de subsistance des réfugiés karen sont profondément diversifiées et profondément influencées par l'état spécifique de vulnérabilité dans lequel ils se retrouvent lorsque cherchant refuge en Thaïlande. Les réfugiés, autant dans et hors des camps de réfugiés officiels, misent fortement sur la mobilité, l'éducation et les opportunités de travail pour acquérir ou améliorer leurs compétences et savoirs professionnels, leur permettant d'espérer un meilleur futur. Au final, cette recherche met en évidence l'agencéité, la résilience, et la soif d'autosuffisance des réfugiés, plaidant pour qu'ils soient considérés comme des acteurs actifs et des décideurs lorsqu'il est question de problématiques les concernant. / Taking as anchor the current context of decreasing humanitarian aid brought to refugees settled on the Thai side of the Thai-Burma border, this research aims to document the (re)organization of the livelihood strategies of the Karen refugees living in this region in reaction to the decreasing humanitarian aid they receive. The theoretical framework underlying this research is the livelihood approach adapted to the specific context of refugees, to which is added hope as an analytical element, allowing for the consideration of refugees' imagination, projects and visions of the future into the analysis. Results show that Karen refugees' livelihoods are deeply diversified and deeply influenced by the specific state of vulnerability they find themselves in when seeking refuge in Thailand. Refugees, both inside and outside of the official refugee camps, heavily bet on mobility, education and work opportunities to acquire or improve their professional skills and knowledge, allowing them to hope of a better future. In the end, this research highlights Karen refugees' agency, resilience and thirst for self-sufficiency, and advocates for them to be considered as active actors and decision makers when it comes to issues affecting them.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-136) / The study focuses on the impact of the Boko Haram Muslim terrorist group on the socioeconomic well‐being and livelihood of the population in the north‐east of Nigeria. To research the social, economic, religious and political impact of attacks leading to the disruption of people in the north‐east who fled their homes for the safety of southern refugee camps, the study relies on three research questions to be answered, namely: Does the Boko Haram terrorist group pose a threat to the socio‐economic well‐being of people in north‐eastern Nigeria? How have Boko Haram terrorist attacks impacted on the livelihood of the population? What is a viable solution or intervention strategy to deal with the impact of and fight against terrorism in Nigeria in particular? The study adopts an in‐depth qualitative methodology. Different related research techniques are used in data collection and analysis. Focus group discussions, in‐depth interviews and documentary sources have different complementary strengths, which are more comprehensive when used together. Questionnaires will guide the discussions with groups of internally displaced people, who are the units of analysis. Data is gathered through snowball sampling of willing, available respondents to understand and explain their personal views and experiences, creating the meanings they have constructed around their disrupted livelihoods and well‐being in refugee camps. An overarching, broad conflict perspective is chosen, related to Dahrendorf’s views on power struggles of dominant interest groups, authority, inequality and marginalisation of opponents, which also includes complementary concepts of religiously inspired fundamentalist theory focusing on indoctrination, dominance, manipulation and marginalisation of interest groups. This broad conflict perspective will investigate the social, economic, political and religious impacts of Boko Haram in Nigeria. The findings indicate that the Boko Haram attacks had a negative effect on the livelihood of citizens and displaced persons in refugee camps, as well as on the social cohesion and development of the north‐eastern Nigerian state. Conflict resolution and intervention strategies will be implemented to curb the violence. Societal transformation is recommended for infrastructural development and job creation to solve poverty and gainfully cater for educated, unemployed youths, now recruited into the ranks of the Boko Haram Muslim sect. / Sociology / M.A. (Sociology)

La communauté internationale considère certaines personnes déplacées comme étant des migrants irréguliers. Cette étude démontre le caractère contraint du départ pour trois catégories de personnes, à savoir les personnes fuyant les conséquences aveugles d’un conflit armé international ou non international, les personnes fuyant les catastrophes environnementales de causes anthropiques ou naturelles et les personnes fuyant une situation économique ou sociale désastreuse. L’approche catégorielle classique du droit international public ne permet pas de garantir une protection à ces personnes. Aucun statut particulier ne leur étant attribué, ces personnes se trouvent dans une situation de vulnérabilité. De quelle manière est-il alors possible d’assurer une protection effective à ces personnes vulnérables déplacées ? Actuellement, la plupart des Etats s’inscrivent dans une démarche sécuritaire, contrôlant strictement la gestion des flux migratoires et appliquant peu ou prou les instruments juridiques internationaux protecteurs. Une complémentarité des différents régimes juridiques (droit international des réfugiés, droit international humanitaire, droit international des droits de l’homme) est par conséquent nécessaire et une interprétation extensive des textes existants est recommandée. Pour pallier les insuffisances du droit positif, le recours à la notion de vulnérabilité, transversale à ces diverses situations, est invoqué, permettant ainsi de dépasser l’approche catégorielle classique. Pas encore reconnue comme une source du droit international, la notion est devenue, depuis quelques années, incontournable sur la scène internationale. Elle apparaît ponctuellement dans les textes conventionnels et est fréquemment utilisée dans les instruments de droit mou. Prise en compte progressivement par les jurisprudences internationales et régionales, mais aussi par la doctrine, elle figure allègrement dans le discours des organisations humanitaires et des médias. Le développement de la notion de vulnérabilité en droit mou, précisément en des lignes directrices garantirait une meilleure protection des personnes déplacées vulnérables permettant de prévenir le déplacement, d’octroyer un statut temporaire ou définitif ou encore de fournir des conditions d’accueil dignes dans les Etats ou les régions hôtes. Ces lignes directrices servant de guide aux Etats laissent envisager par la suite l’adoption de règles contraignantes protectrices de ces personnes déplacées. La distinction entre personnes vulnérables déplacées et personnes particulièrement vulnérables doit également être prise en compte à ce stade. De surcroît, il convient d’engager la responsabilité des auteurs ayant contribué au déplacement contraint ou ayant commis des exactions sur ces personnes déplacées devant des instances judiciaires internationales, régionales ou encore nationales pour lutter contre l’impunité. En conséquence, une réparation juste pour le préjudice subi doit être garantie à ces personnes. / The international community considers some displaced persons as irregular migrants. This study demonstrates that the departure is undeniably forced concerning three groups of people : the persons fleeing blind violence and the collateral effects of an international or non international armed conflict, the persons fleeing man-made or natural environmental disasters, and the persons fleeing difficult economical or social situations. The classical approach of public international law based on distinct categories does not guarantee effective protection to these persons. As no particular international status is given to these persons, they are in a situation of vulnerability. In which way an effective protection could be a guarantee to these vulnerable displaced persons? Currently, most of the States defend a safe approach, strictly controlling the management of migration flows and applying more or less protective international legal instruments. Complementarity of different legal systems (international refugee law, international humanitarian law, international law of human rights) is therefore necessary and a broad interpretation of existing texts is recommended. To overcome the shortcomings of positive law, the use of the concept of vulnerability, crossing different situations, is invoked, in order to exceed the traditional categorical approach. Not yet recognised as a source of international law, the term “vulnerability” has become an essential notion on the international scene in recent years. It appears occasionally in conventional instruments and is frequently used in soft law. It has been gradually developed through the international and regional jurisprudence and also by the doctrine. The discourse of humanitarian organizations and the media often refers to the notion. The development of the concept of vulnerability in soft law, specifically in the shape of guidelines would ensure a better protection of vulnerable displaced persons. In this regard, guidelines could prevent people fleeing, grant a temporary or a permanent status and provide dignified reception conditions in the host States or regions. This instrument of soft law would be used as a guide for States subsequent to the adoption of protective binding rules. The distinction between vulnerable displaced persons and particularly vulnerable persons has to be taken into account at this stage. Furthermore, the responsibility of the authors who have contributed to the forced displacement or who have committed atrocities against the displaced persons should be brought before the international, regional or national judicial authorities, in order to fight against impunity. Consequently, a fair compensation for the damage suffered must be guaranteed to these persons.