L’objet de notre recherche en didactique des mathématiques est d’étudier l’introduction des technologies numériques comme environnement complémentaire à des manipulations concrètes. Nous définissons les duos d’artefacts comme l’articulation fructueuse entre un artefact numérique et un artefact matériel qui soit une plus-value pour les apprentissages. L’approche instrumentale de Rabardel nous permet d’établir les critères de cette articulation; chaque artefact du duo enrichit l’autre à travers les instruments construits. Un duo d’artefacts provoque des genèses instrumentales associées. Afin de fonder les conditions d’un apprentissage au sens de Brousseau, un duo n’existe que lorsqu’il est mobilisé dans une situation didactique. Notre enjeu est alors d’élaborer un duo d’artefacts incluant le compas matériel en vue de la conceptualisation du triangle à partir de sa construction à la règle et au compas. La composition du duo et son orchestration dans une situation ont pour intention de faire émerger une nouvelle genèse instrumentale du compas et, selon les travaux de Duval, une déconstruction dimensionnelle 1D du triangle. Des expérimentations en classe nous ont permis de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle la situation et le duo provoquent l’élaboration d’un nouvel instrument compas pour faire pivoter un segment. Le modèle de conceptions de Balacheff nous a aussi permis d’identifier l’évolution des conceptions des élèves sur le triangle et le cercle au fil de la situation, en particulier l’apparition d’une vision 1D du triangle comme une ligne brisée fermée et d’une caractérisation du cercle comme la trajectoire d’une extrémité d’un segment pivoté. / Our research project in didactics of mathematics is to study the use of digital technologies as a complementary environment to concrete manipulations. We define a duo of artefacts as the fruitful link between a digital artefact and a material one in such a way that this linking is an added value for the learning process. The instrumental approach of Rabardel allows us to establish the requirements for this link, each artefact enriching the other through the constructed instruments. A duo of artefacts sets off associated instrumental geneses. In order to base the conditions of the learning process, in the sense of Brousseau, a duo exists only when it is mobilized in a didactic situation. Our issue is to develop a duo of artifacts including the pair of compasses for the conceptualization of the triangle in the teaching of its geometric construction. The composition of the duo and its orchestration in a didactic situation are intended to bring out a new instrumental genesis of the compasses and, according to Duval's work, a 1D dimensional deconstruction of the triangle. Experiments in classes have enabled us to validate the hypothesis that the situation and the duo cause the development of a new pair of compasses instrument to rotate a segment. Balacheff's model of conceptions also allowed us to identify the evolution of pupils' conceptions of the triangle and the circle as the situation progressed, specifically the improvement of a 1D vision of the triangle as a closed broken line and a characterization of the circle as the trajectory of one end of a pivoted segment.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T16:57:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao_luciana_fajardo_vidigal.pdf: 2051742 bytes, checksum: 6a8b1116a719dd2cb08296dd423fb55e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-05-18 / The aim of this research was to investigate the knowledge mobilized by those students who have studied Integral, a subject that permeates a major part of the Integral and Differential Calculus (IDC) course and is a source of difficulties for the students. The goal was to analyze the explicit knowledge of those who have studied this concept in a regular IDC course in terms of the integration techniques as well as the meaning and the concept utilization. It has also been researched whether this knowledge reflected operational and structural conceptions in the sense applied by Anna Sfard (1991), whose theory this paper is based on. In her studies, the author postulates that abstract notions are conceivable in two completely different ways: structurally (as objects) and operationally (as processes). As an investigation means, it has been used a questionnaire containing nine questions and applied to two groups of a private school s math course in São Paulo city. One of the groups was constituted by students who have recently studied the notion of Integral, and the other group by students who went through the same studies one year before. In terms of the first group, the conclusion drawn up was that the students have incurred in several kinds of operational calculus mistakes, also the processes involving integral notion showed up but only sometimes, indicating a clear structural conception failure. These characteristics were not observed in the second group. It has been noticed that all researched students apparently had mobilized the structural concept considering they have applied the mathematical object to determine the area of even spaces in the function graph, but when facing those circumstances in which they had to reason to be able to apply the concept as an object they did not have enough assurance in terms of structural conception, and tried to take refuge in the algebra processes / Esta pesquisa buscou investigar os conhecimentos mobilizados por alunos, que estudaram o conceito de Integral, que permeia grande parte da disciplina Cálculo Diferencial e Integral (CDI) e que é fonte de dificuldades para os alunos. Buscouse analisar os conhecimentos explicitados por alunos que estudaram o conceito num curso regular de CDI, tanto no aspecto das técnicas de integração como no significado e na aplicação do conceito. Pesquisou-se, igualmente, se estes conhecimentos refletiam concepções operacionais e estruturais no sentido atribuído por Anna Sfard (1991), que fundamentou teoricamente este estudo. Em seu estudo, a autora postula que noções abstratas podem ser concebidas e duas maneiras fundamentalmente diferentes: estruturalmente (como objeto) e operacionalmente (como processo). Como instrumento de investigação foi utilizado um questionário com nove questões que foi aplicado a dois grupos de alunos do Curso de Matemática de uma instituição particular de São Paulo. Um deles constituídos por alunos que haviam estudado recentemente a noção de Integral e o outro, por estudantes que o fizera há cerca de um ano. Concluiu-se que, no caso do primeiro grupo, os alunos, além de terem apresentado variados tipos de equívocos em cálculos operatórios, os processos que envolvem a noção integral ora manifestam concebidos ora não, concorrendo para o prejuízo da concepção estrutural, o que não ocorreu no segundo grupo. Observou-se que a totalidade dos alunos pesquisados, aparentemente mobilizara a concepção estrutural, uma vez que aplicaram o objeto matemático para determinar a área de regiões planas sob o gráfico de funções, mas quando colocados numa situação particular em que se exigia uma reflexão para o emprego do conceito como objeto, eles não exibiram suficiente segurança em sua concepção estrutural, procurando refúgio em processos algébricos

Les connaissances de génétique humaine viennent d’évoluer profondément avec un changement de paradigme majeur : l'émergence de l'épigénétique, en rupture avec l'ère du «tout génétique». L’objectif de notre recherche est d'analyser jusqu'à quel point ces changements se sont opérés dans l’enseignement secondaire en biologie dans 19 pays. Nous interrogeons les relations entre science et société et plus précisément entre connaissances scientifiques, valeurs (par exemple celles qui fondent les idéologies innéistes, sexistes, voire racistes) et pratiques socioculturelles(spécifiques aux pays, à leurs systèmes éducatifs, aux religions). Cette thèse relève de la didactique de la biologie. Sa première partie présente d’une part et de façon succincte quelques connaissances de génétique humaine pour situer ce changement récent de paradigme et d’autre part, le contexte didactique de ce travail fortement lié à l’analyse des conceptions chez les enseignants et dans les manuels scolaires.La seconde partie est consacrée à la méthodologie. Élaborée conjointement avec les différentes équipes du projet BIOHEAD-CITIZEN, elle se compose d’une grille d’analyse pour les manuels scolaires et d’un questionnaire de 10 pages pour analyser les conceptions des enseignants. L’outil statistique des analyses multivariées est présenté de façon simple pour permettre à un lecteur non averti d'en maîtriser le sens.La troisième partie présente et discute les résultats, qui sont de deux types :- Analyse critique des manuels scolaires. Dans la majorité d'entre eux, ont été identifiés des indices montrant un ancrage de conceptions innéistes, souvent implicites. Par exemple, les images de jumeaux monozygotes suggèrent dans tous les pays que leur façon de s'habiller serait déterminée par leurs gènes. D’autres indices, en revanche, différencient les pays entre eux. Par exemple le syntagme programme génétique, aujourd'hui fortement contesté par les scientifiques, reste très présent dans certains pays (France, Finlande, Liban, etc.), alors qu'il a récemment disparu dans les manuels scolaires tunisiens, et qu'il n'est traditionnellement pas utilisé dans d'autres pays (ex-union soviétique).– Analyse des conceptions d'enseignants de 19 pays à propos du déterminisme génétique des performances et traits humains (7050 enseignants du primaire et du secondaire, de lettres et de biologie). Ces conceptions illustrent de fortes interactions entre les valeurs des enseignants et leurs connaissances sur l’hérédité. Il existe des différences importantes entre les pays. Par exemple des pays d’Europe méditerranéenne (France, Italie, Portugal) sont moins innéistes que les pays non européens. En Finlande, les enseignant(e)s sont à la fois plus innéistes qu'en France,mais tout aussi féministes. De façon plus générale, les conceptions des enseignants varient significativement avec leur degré de croyance et de pratique religieuse mais indépendamment de la confession religieuse. Elles varient aussi en fonction de leur âge, de leur sexe et de leur niveau d’étude. Au total, nos analyses mettent en évidence des systèmes de conceptions : les plus innéistes sont en même temps les plus créationnistes quant à l'évolution, et correspondent à certaines opinions politiques, religieuses et sociales.La conclusion insiste sur l'importance pour les enseignants de prendre conscience de la complexité de ce qu'ils enseignent en génétique humaine. La formation des maîtres gagnerait à les familiariser avec une approche critique des manuels qu'ils utilisent, mais aussi de leurs propres conceptions, en particulier en sachant identifier les interactions, fréquentes en génétique humaine,entre valeurs et connaissances scientifiques. / The rise of epigenetics as a major new paradigm for human genetics has profoundly transformed the field, marking a rupture with the “all genetics” era. The aim of our research is to analyze the effect of these changes for biology teaching in secondary education in 19 countries. We examine the relationship between science and society and more specifically between scientific knowledge, values (e.g. those associated with innatist, sexist or racist ideologies) and socio-cultural practices (specific to countries, their educational systems, and religions).This thesis is in the didactics of biology. The first part briefly presents some elements of human genetics to help situate the new paradigm, as well as introducing the educational context of this work, which highlights the analysis of conceptions among teachers and school textbooks.The second part is devoted to methodology. Developed in collaboration by the 19 teams of theBIOHEAD-CITIZEN project, it consists of a framework for analysing textbooks and the useof a 10-page questionnaire to assess teachers' conceptions. The statistical tool of multivariate analysis is then presented in a widely accessible manner. The third part presents and discusses the results, which are of two types:- Critical analysis of school textbooks. The majority of them still contained innatist conceptions, although often only implicit, as with images of monozygotic twins suggesting in all countries that their way of dressing is determined by their genes. However, other elements differed from one country to another. For example, the term "genetic program", now strongly challenged by scientists, is still regularly used in some countries (France, Finland, Lebanon,etc.), while it has recently disappeared from Tunisian textbooks, and has never been widely used in some others (like the former Soviet Union).- Analysis of teachers' conceptions about genetic determinism for human traits and performances in 19 countries (7,050 primary and secondary school teachers, in literature and biology). These conceptions illustrate the close interaction between teachers’ values and their knowledge about heredity. There are important differences between countries; for example,teachers in Southern Europe (France, Italy, Portugal) are less innatist than outside Europe. In Finland, the teachers are more innatist than in France, but not more sexist. More generally ,teachers’ conceptions vary significantly with their degree of belief in God and religious practice, irrespective of religious denomination. Conceptions also vary according to age, sex and level of education. Overall, our analysis highlights the concept of a ‘system of conceptions’: the most innatist groups are also the most creationist, and are characterized by certain political, religious and social features.The conclusion emphasizes the importance for teachers of becoming aware of the complexity of human genetics. Teacher-training needs to include a critical approach not only to textbooks, but also of the teachers’ own conceptions, helping them to identify interactions between values and scientific knowledge.

En première partie, cette thèse présente différentes significations des termes nature et environnement, en arabe et en français. Par exemple, en arabe, il existe trois termes pour désigner le mot français "environnement". Elle identifie, dans le cadre du modèle KVP qui analyse les conceptions comme des interactions entre connaissances, valeurs et pratiques sociales, plusieurs valeurs qui sous-tendent ces définitions. Plusieurs d'entre elles sont reprises comme des objectifs de l'éducation à l'environnement : citoyenneté, autonomie, responsabilité, altruisme et solidarité (CARTAS). L'essentiel de cette thèse analyse ensuite les conceptions, et plus particulièrement les systèmes de valeurs, sur la nature et l’environnement chez des enseignants tunisiens (111 enseignants de Sciences de la Vie et de la Terre : SVT et 42 enseignants d'Histoire et Géographie : HG), chez 273 élèves de 2ème année secondaire (16-17 ans) et dans les manuels scolaires tunisiens SVT de ce niveau scolaire, édités en 2003 et 2005. Les différentes analyses effectuées (khi2, analyse des correspondances multiples et analyse en composantes principales) montrent que les élèves sont plus anthropocentrés que les enseignants SVT et HG, qui sont plutôt écolocentrés, sans différence significative entre enseignants SVT et HG. Ces systèmes de valeurs sont corrélés à certaines variables personnelles : les non bacheliers, les jeunes et les individus ayant une enfance campagnarde sont plus anthropocentrés que, respectivement, les titulaires d'un baccalauréat ou plus, les adultes et ceux ayant une enfance citadine, qui sont plus écolocentrés. Les conceptions des élèves sont dans l'ensemble conformes à celles présentes dans les manuels SVT : nature sans homme, rapport utilitaire à la nature, absence de gestion et de prévention des risques liés à l’utilisation des ressources, ce qui ne favorise pas l’acquisition des valeurs CARTAS. Les enjeux et perspectives de ces résultats sont discutés / In the first part, this thesis presents in Arabic and French various significations of nature and environment terms. For example, in Arabic, there are three terms to indicate the French word " environnement ". It identifies, within the framework of the KVP model which analyzes the conceptions as interactions between knowledge, values and social practices, several values which underlie these definitions. Several of them are taken again like environmental education objectives : citizenship, autonomy, responsibility, altruism and solidarity (CARTAS). The main part in this thesis analyzes the conceptions, and mainly the values’ systems on nature and environment for some Tunisian teachers (111 Earth and Life Sciences: ELS teachers and 42 History and Geography : HG teachers ), at 273 secondary 2nd year pupils (16-17 year-olds) and in Tunisian LSE textbooks of this school level, published 2003 and 2005. Different analyses carried out (khi2, MCA and PCA) show that pupils are more anthropocentrics than ELS and HG teachers, who are rather écolocentrics, without a significant difference between ELS and HG teachers. These values’ systems are correlated with certain personal variables: the non graduates, the youths and individuals with a country childhood are more anthropocentrics than, respectively, the graduates (baccalaureate or higher), the adults and those with a town childhood, who are more écolocentrics. Pupils’ conceptions are on the whole in conformity with those present in ELS textbooks: nature without man, utility-relation with nature, absence of management and risks prevention related to the use of the resources, which is not in favour of the acquisition of CARTAS values. Stakes and perspectives of these results are discusse

Made available in DSpace on 2015-09-25T12:18:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LuisHavelangeSoares.pdf: 590177 bytes, checksum: 7aacae98ee64485c6bb9352f7ffead84 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-11-22 / This research study consists of seeking and analyzing the predominant conceptions among mathematics teachers about previous knowledge and its use in the classroom. Integer Number Set was the theme worked; being the research subjects four (4) six grade (12 years old) mathematics teachers of the Fundamental Level at a public school of the State of Paraíba. Questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations were used for the data collection. The Ausubel´s theory of (ver em ingles neste caso..) learning was used for discussing the process of teaching and learning Mathematics. Mandarino´s categorization was adopted to analyze the teaching conceptions. Mandarino (2006) classifies the teaching conceptions in the teaching of Mathematics as formal or traditional conception, utilitarian or instrumental conception and relational conception. It has been noticed, in the day by day teacher´s practice on the teaching of integer numbers that three (3) of the four teachers act on the utilitarian or instrumental conception and one (1) of them on the relational conception. The three teachers reduce the previous necessary knowledge for approaching integer numbers to the four operations to natural numbers, that is, they give attention to the procedural contents in a traditional view of pre-requisites. It is discussed the formative deficiencies, for the initial and continuous, from the detected deficiencies. / Este trabalho de pesquisa consiste em levantar e analisar as concepções predominantes entre professores de matemática sobre conhecimentos prévios e o seu uso em sala de aula. Utilizou-se como tema o Conjunto dos Números Inteiros, sendo pesquisados 04 (quatro) docentes de turmas da 6ª série (7º ano) do Ensino Fundamental da rede pública do estado da Paraíba. Como instrumentos de coletas de dados foram usados questionários, entrevistas e observações de aulas. O uso de conhecimentos no processo de ensino-aprendizagem de matemática foi da teoria da aprendizagem significativa de Ausubel. Para análise das concepções de ensino adotou-se a categorização estabelecida por Mandarino (2006), que classifica as concepções no ensino de matemática em concepção formal ou tradicional, concepção utilitária ou instrumental e concepção relacional. Percebeu-se, quanto à prática cotidiana dos docentes no ensino de números inteiros, que 03(três) deles atuam seguindo a concepção utilitária ou instrumental e 1(um), a concepção relacional. Os três reduzem os conhecimentos prévios necessários para abordar os números inteiros, às quatro operações com naturais, ou seja, ou seja, privilegiam os conteúdos procedimentais dentro da visão tradicional de pré-requisitos. Discute-se as deficiências formativas, tanto inicial, como continuada, a partir das deficiências detectadas.

Cette recherche a pour objet d’étudier la conception qu’ont les élèves du cycle de vie des plantes à fleurs, en Alsace et au Baden-Württemberg, dans des établissements du primaire et du secondaire, de rechercher les facteurs d’influence potentiels et de dégager les principaux obstacles aux apprentissages. Trois éléments structurent cette thèse : 1) une enquête exploratoire par entretiens (n=49) ; 2) une analyse contextuelle des références en sciences naturelles et dans le champ socio- culturel, des “curricula à enseigner”, à travers les programmes et manuels scolaires, et des “curricula enseignés” ; 3) une enquête principale par questionnaires (n=1388). Les outils de recueil interrogent les concepts-clés (graine, fleur, fruit) et les processus-clés (pollinisation, fécondation, fructification, formation des graines, dissémination) qui caractérisent le cycle de vie des plantes à fleurs. Les élèves ont été priés d’ordonner différents stades de développement des plantes et d’expliquer ce placement. Différents modèles mentaux ont été élaborés à partir des résultats. D’autre part, les résultats sont mis en lien avec ceux de l’analyse contextuelle. La conceptualisation du cycle de vie végétal dépend, entre autres, de celle de la reproduction sexuée et ainsi du type de plante (fleur, au sens commun, ou d’un arbre fruitier). Des différences culturelles ont également pu être relevées. / This research aims to investigate students’ conceptions about the life cycle of flowering plants in both Alsace and Baden-Württemberg, in primary and secondary schools, to detect potential factors influencing student’s conceptions and to identify main learning obstacles. Three elements structured this PhD-thesis: 1) an exploratory investigation with the help of interviews (n=49) ; 2) a context analysis of references in natural sciences and in the socio-cultural domain, of “curricula to teach” through school programmes and manuals, and of “taught curricula” ; 3) a main investigation using questionnaires (n=1388). The instruments included questions to key concepts (seed, flower, fruit) and processes (pollination, fecundation, fructification, formation of seeds, dissemination), which characterize the life cycle of flowering plants. Students were especially asked to order different development stages of plants and to explain their ordering. Different mental models could be derived from the results. Moreover, results were related to those of the context analysis. Conceptualizations of the life cycle of plants depend, amongst others, on those of the sexual reproduction and thus the type of plant (flower, fruit tree). Cultural differences were also identified.

Effects of a substance abuse prevention program on the locus of control and self-concept of 148 Hispanic and Anglo third and fourth grade children were evaluated. A 2 x 2 (race x group) multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was carried out using the Health Resources Inventory, Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale, and two roster and rating sociometric questionnaires. The results of the analysis revealed a significant effect of time and interactions between time and race and time and group. Mean scores on the Health Resources Inventory and both sociometric questionnaires increased from pre-test to post-test for all children. In addition, children's scores indicated a change toward an internal direction on the Locus of Control Scale. Only the sociometric questionnaire measuring the children's perception of their popularity showed a significant group effect. The experimental group, those whose teachers had used the prevention curriculum, increased their perception of how well they were liked by their classmates. However, their actual popularity as measured by the average of their classmates' rating did not change. Possible explanations and methodological shortcomings are discussed.

This study examined the psychometric properties for the Draw-A-Person (DAP) test (Naglieri, 1988). Data were collected from 191 children following the accepted procedure from an earlier study (Badger & Jones, 1988). Drawings were scored using both Harris' (1963) and Naglieri's (1988) scoring systems following the procedures outlined in the manuals. Basically, the DAP test demonstrated reliable and valid properties. The Naglieri's (1988) scoring system was favored in this study because it demonstrated more consistent internal consistency, higher inter- and intra-rater reliability and satisfactory construct validity. Positive and moderate high correlations with the scores obtained from Goodenough-Harris's scoring systems supported that the Naglieri's version measured the same concept as the old system. Psychometric properties of the DAP test support use in clinical and research settings to gather data from children about their general abilities.

5 TITLE: Comparison of the terms of management and leadership AUTHOR: Jitka Vlková DEPARTMENT: Education Management Center SUPERVISOR: Mgr. Irena Lhotková, Ph.D. ABSTRACT: The final study deals with the issue of management - in terms of managing an organization, and with the issue of leadership - leading people. The theoretical part will clarify both particular terms: management and leadership in the first place. This part is based mainly on literature. This issue follows from a current problem, which is the fact that directors understand the role of leading people less important than the role of managing organization, or they marginalize this role for lack of time and pay more attention to economic and administrative work. Then, there is a problem to lead a nursery school. 6 Work with people is often disregarded and underestimated in schooling; most of schools is managed too much, and, on the other hand, there is a lack of leadership. This thesis follows results of Věra Fantová's research study from 2004. This research study confirmed that manager activities predominate over pedagogical activities. The study proved that directors are often burdened by frequently changed legislation, they have lack of time for pedagogical leading of school, and united school directors worry about leading people. We all know...

This thesis seeks to contribute knowledge to how professional teachers in social studies express their subject conception, and its relation to the subject manifested in teaching. The data consists of 48 hours of observed teaching and interviews. A first sub-study shows that the teachers prioritise a content dominated by political science, which reveals a strong content tradition and nuances the picture of an unclear identity seen in the review of previous research. It is also found that the use of news is prominent. The second sub-study confirms the theoretical assumption that the teachers’ conceptions are complex, seeking to harmonise both the internal academic goals and the external civil goals found in social studies. This complements previous research based on the written curriculum where the internal and external goals have been regarded as dichotomous. The results of the third sub-study reveal how news is used in two ways, news coverage and news integration, where the teachers express knowledge aligned with their individual subject conception. However, the external goals tend to be less emphasised in the subject manifested in teaching in favour for the internal interim goals. Differences between news coverage and news integration are also found as news coverage seems to be more focused on civil goals. A contribution with this study is that we now in Swedish research can talk about social studies teachers’ subject conception as a complex phenomenon. It also encourages a more precise conversation about social studies. A more precise vocabulary can enable teachers to develop their understanding of the relation between goals, content and teaching methods. Furthermore, the revelation of news and its relation to the teachers’ subject conception and teaching hopefully can inspire future explorations on news as a teaching tool. / I avhandlingen beskrivs hur samhällskunskapsläraren förstår sitt ämne och vad det är för ämne som framträder genom undervisningen. Vilken kombination av målsättningar kommer till uttryck i lärarens ämnesförståelse respektive undervisning? Hur förhåller sig synen på innehåll och metoder till synen på målsättningarna? Betonas politiska och moraliska fostransmål respektive samhällsvetenskapliga akademiska kunskapsmål olika mycket hos olika lärare? Vilken funktion har nyheter i undervisningen och hur ser kopplingen ut mellan nyhetsanvändning och lärarens ämnesförståelse? Dessa frågor har studerats via intervjuer och klassrumsobservationer. Studien visar att kunskaps- och fostransmål kombineras av läraren, vilket kompletterar läroplansgrundade beskrivningar av ämnet där kunskap respektive fostran tenderar att ses som konkurrerande mål. Nyheter har en framskjuten plats och används för att uttrycka olika typer av kunskapsmål. Studien kan bidra till att det ämnesdidaktiska samtalet om samhällskunskap, och i synnerhet nyhetsanvändning i samhällskunskap, blir mer preciserat. Relationen mellan lärares tänkande och undervisning gör studien relevant också för en bredare publik som intresserar sig för undervisning i allmänhet. / <p>Avhandlingen är ett samarbete med Örebro universitet och forskarskola Utbildningsvetenskap med inrikning mot didaktik arrangerad av Örebro universitet.   </p>