Neste estudo foram avaliados os efeitos da subunidade CB (FLA2 isolada do veneno da serpente C. d. terrificus) em células endoteliais quanto: 1) síntese de PGI2 e mecanismos e 2) mecanismos inibitórios sobre moléculas de adesão. Os resultados mostraram que a liberação de PGI2 induzida pela CB depende de COX-1, PGIS, cFLA2, ERK1/2, mas não de COX-2, NF-kB, p38, JNK, iFLA2, receptor IP, AC ou PKA. Em adição, a CB aumentou os níveis de PGIS, mas não de COX-1 ou COX-2. Ainda, a CB inibiu a expressão de ICAM-1 e VCAM-1, mas não de PECAM-1, induzidas pelo LPS. Em relação aos mecanismos da ação inibitória da CB, foi demonstrado que o PPAR-α e -β/δ, IP, AC, PKA e a PGI2 são relevantes para inibição de ICAM-1, mas não de VCAM-1, induzida pelo LPS. Além disso, a CB inibiu a expressão gênica de ICAM-1, VCAM-1, TNF-α e IL-6, induzida pelo LPS. Este estudo evidenciou importantes vias na ação inibitória da FLA2 crotálica, em um evento fundamental da resposta inflamatória e trouxe a melhor compreensão das atividades biológicas desencadeadas por esta FLA2 em células endoteliais. / In this study the effect of CB, a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) isolated from Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom, in cultured endothelial cells was investigated, with focus on: i) biosynthesis of prostacyclin (PGI2) and related mechanisms, and ii) inhibitory mechanisms on expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and PECAM-1 adhesion molecules. Results showed that COX-1, PGI2 synthase (PGIS), cPLA2, ERK1/2 and MEK1/2, but not COX-2, NF-kB, p38, JNK, iPLA2, IP receptor, cyclase adenylate nor PKA, are involved CB-induced PGI2 biosynthesis. In addition, CB up-regulated PGIS, but not COX-1 nor COX-2 protein levels. Moreover, CB was able to inhibit LPS-induced ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, but not PECAM-1 protein expression. PPAR-α and -β/δ, IP receptor, cyclase adenylate, PKA and PGI2, but not PPAR-γ, are essential for CB-induced inhibition of ICAM-1. Furthermore, CB inhibited LPS-induced gene expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, TNF-α and IL-6. Inhibition of these cytokines by CB may be related to down regulation of both VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 seen in endothelial cells incubated with this venom PLA2.

Neste trabalho foi estudado o potencial imunorregulador da crotoxina (CTX) obtida do veneno de C. d. terrificus, em modelo experimental de colite induzida pelo TNBS em camundongos. A CTX foi capaz de diminuir a perda de peso, o score clínico e histológico, síntese de MPO e citocinas pró-inflamatórias. Menor número de neutrófilos e macrófagos com fenótipos M1 e M2 na lâmina própria foi observado nos grupos TNBS/CTX em relação ao TNBS. A CTX induziu TGF-b e IL-10, PGE2 e LXA4. A neutralização in vivo dessas citocinas ou o bloqueio da síntese desses eicosanoides indica que estas moléculas exercem papel relevante na ação moduladora da CTX no quadro inflamatório. As análises das diferentes populações celulares da lâmina própria, linfonodos e Placas de Peyer mostraram que não houve diferença nos linfócitos CD4+Tbet+ entre os grupos TNBS e TNBS/CTX. No entanto, a CTX promoveu aumento de CD4+FoxP3+ e diminuição de CD4+RORg+. Estes resultados indicam que a CTX é capaz de modular a resposta inflamatória aguda intestinal melhorando o quadro clinico observado nos animais. / In this work it was analyzed the immunomodulatory effect of crotoxin (CTX) isolated from C.d. terrificus snake venom, on the experimental model of colitis induced by TNBS in mice. The CTX was able to inhibit the weight loss, clinical and histological score, MPO synthesis and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Lower number of neutrophils and macrophage (M1 and M2) in lamina propria was observed in TNBS/CTX mice compared with the TNBS group. In contrast, the CTX induced increased TGF-b, IL-10, PGE2 and LXA4. The in vivo neutralization of these cytokines or eicosanoids synthesis indicates that these molecules exert significant role in the modulatory effect of CTX. The analyzes of distinct cell populations from lamina propria, lymph nodes and Peyers pathes showed no difference in CD4+Tbet+ between TNBS or TNBS/CTX mice. However, CTX induced an increase of CD4+FoxP3+ and decreased CD4+RORgt+. Together, these results indicate that CTX is able to modulate intestinal acute inflammatory response induced by TNBS improving the clinical status of the mice.

O veneno da serpente Crotalus durissus terrificus e seus componentes desencadeiam importantes efeitos biológicos que envolvem direta e/ou indiretamente, componentes do sistema circulatório. Contudo, não há estudos específicos na literatura sobre os efeitos do veneno crotálico ou de suas toxinas, em células endoteliais. As células endoteliais constituem a camada de revestimento interna dos vasos sanguíneos, denominada endotélio. Este tecido é metabolicamente ativo, com função protetora do sistema cardiovascular e desempenha papel central na regulação da função circulatória, através do controle da coagulação, permeabilidade e do tônus vascular. Neste contexto, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos do veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus (VCdt), do seu componente majoritário, a crotoxina (CTX) e de suas subunidades, fosfolipase A2 (CB) e crotapotina (CA), sobre células endoteliais, em cultura, quanto à: i) viabilidade e proliferação celular; ii) integridade das monocamadas; iii) produção de óxido nítrico, de prostaciclina e mecanismos envolvidos neste efeito. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que o veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus afetou a viabilidade e a integridade de células endoteliais em cultura, de modo tempo-dependente e apenas na maior concentração, sugerindo sua baixa toxicidade sobre as células endoteliais. A subunidade CB, mas não a CTX nem a crotapotina, reproduziu os efeitos causados pelo VCdt. Em concentrações não citotóxicas, tanto o veneno quanto as toxinas não alteraram a proliferação celular nem a produção basal de óxido nítrico pelas células endoteliais. Por outro lado, o veneno e a subunidade CB, mas não a CTX nem a CA causaram aumento significativo da produção de prostaciclina, via COX-1 e COX-2, sendo que a expressão protéica da isoforma COX-2 foi induzida por estes agentes. Além disso, foi demonstrado que a fosfolipase citosólica é relevante para o aumento da produção de prostaciclina, induzido pela CB. Adicionalmente, foi demonstrado que a atividade catalítica da subunidade CB é essencial para os efeitos descritos. Isto reforça a sugestão de que a subunidade fosfolipásica, isoladamente, possa contribuir para os efeitos do veneno total no endotélio. Nesse sentido, se houver alguma fração desta enzima na sua forma livre, no veneno total, sugere-se que ela contribua, de modo significativo, para os efeitos do veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus no endotélio. / Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom (CdtV) and their components induces systemic effects, which interfere with blood vessel system. Endothelial cells (EC) are central elements for haemostasis, regulating blood vessel-wall permeability, blood fluidity and adhesion properties of circulating leukocytes. However, there is no available data on the effects of this venom and its components on endothelial cells. In this study, the effects of CdtV, crotoxin (CTX) which is formed by two distinct subunits named crotapotin (CA) and phospholipase A2 (CB), on endothelial cells in vitro were investigated, analyzing EC viability and proliferation, EC monolayers integrity, release of both nitric oxide and prostacyclin (PGI2). CdtV, at the highest concentration, time-dependently decreased the viability of EC and the integrity of cell monolayers. The CB subunit, but not CTX nor CA, reproduced the effects caused by crude venom. In contrast, neither EC proliferation nor release of oxide nitric were affected by non-cytotoxic concentrations of CdtV or isolated toxins. However, at the same experimental condition, both CdtV and CB increased the prostacyclin release by endothelium through activation of COX-1 and -2 enzyme systems. Moreover, these toxins upregulated protein expression of COX-2 isoform, but did not alter constitutive expression of COX-1. On the other hand, neither CTX nor CA affected basal production of PGI2. Inhibition of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) by AACOCF3 significantly reduced PGI2 increments caused by both CdtV and CB implying that cPLA2 cooperates for the synthesis of PGI2 induced by them. Inhibition of the catalytic activity of CB abrogated its ability to induce the release of PGI2, thus suggesting the importance of the phospholipase A2 enzyme activity for this effect. These findings provide evidence that CdtV and CB can directly activate EC and up-regulate cyclooxygenase pathways for production of prostacyclin, an important mediator of vasodilation and inflammation. Moreover, CB through its catalytic activity may significantly contribute for the stimulatory effect of CdtV in EC. Therefore, these findings indicate novel regulatory mechanisms for both CdtV and venom secretory PLA2 in endothelial cells.

The phylo-geography and population genetics of three Crotalus species in Southern Arizona (C. atrox, C. cerastes, and C. scutulatus) were examined using mitochondrial DNA genes and nuclear microsatellite DNA markers. My focus was twofold: (1) the phylo-geography and population structure in Southern Arizona and (2) possible genetic signatures of population fragmentation by linear barriers on rattlesnakes populations at Picacho Peak. My results show genetic signatures of geneflow restrictions in one species (C. atrox) which coincide with Interstate 10. I did not observe similar genetic effects in C. cerastes or scutulatus, possibly caused by smaller sample sizes and marker numbers. I found limited phylo-geographic and population genetic structure for all three species in Southern Arizona indicating large interconnected populations. This study provides wildlife management with a powerful genetic toolset and provides important baseline data for future assessment and monitoring efforts of important predators and their populations in the Sonoran desert habitat.

Class of 2012 Abstract / Specific Aims: Determine the difference in venom potency among Mohave Rattlesnakes in Cochise in Pima Counties and determine if those differences correlate to changes in clinical outcomes. Methods: Twenty-one Mohave rattlesnakes, C. s. scutulatus were collected from Arizona and New Mexico. Venom proteomes were analyzed using RP-HPLC and SDS-PAGE. The toxicity of venoms was analyzed using LD50. Health severity outcomes between two Arizona counties, Pima and Cochise, were determined by retrospective chart review of the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center database between 2002-2009. Main Results: Six phenotypes were identified based on three venom proteins; Mojave toxin, SVMP PI and PIII, and myotoxin. Venom changed geographically from SVMP-rich to Mojave toxin-rich phenotypes from south central to southeastern Arizona. Phenotypes containing myotoxins were only found in the transitional zone between the SVMP and Mojave toxin phenotypes. Venom samples containing the largest amounts of SVMP or Mojave toxin had highest and lowest LD50s, respectively. Conclusions: There was a significant difference when comparing the presence of CNS affects between Pima and Cochise counties (p = 0.001). No significant difference was found when comparing severity number of antivenom vials administered, days spent in a health care facility or envenomation per 100,000 population. Although not part of the original data to be collected, death and intubations, were also noted. There is a 10x and 50x increased risk of death or intubations if envenomated in Cochise County.

Acidentes ofídicos constituem um problema de saúde publica. Estudos prévios indicam que constituintes do veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus injetados sistemicamente promovem, agudamente, aumento dos níveis de ansiedade em ratos; se injetados topicamente na formação hipocampal, região intimamente ligada a processos de memória espacial e ansiedade, induzem alterações citoestruturais. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar, em ratos, efeitos comportamentais decorrentes da injeção sistêmica de veneno bruto de Crotalus durissus terrificus e a eficácia do soro anticrotálico em prevenir esses prejuízos quando administrado variáveis intervalos de tempo depois do envenenamento. Ratos submetidos a uma única injeção sistêmica de veneno bruto 7 dias antes do inicio dos testes foram avaliados nas tarefas de memória de referencia e de memória operacional no labirinto aquático de Morris, e também a uma tarefa envolvendo uma plataforma visível no mesmo aparelho. A seguir, os animais foram submetidos ao paradigma do teste-reteste no labirinto em cruz elevado. Os resultados mostraram que houve prejuízos de memória de referencia e de memória operacional; este último efeito ocorreu quando o intervalo entre as tentativas foi de 10 minutos, mas não quando foi de zero minutos. Potenciais efeitos sensoriais e motores foram excluídos. Alem disso, houve substancial aumento nos níveis de ansiedade. A administração de soro anti-crotálico preveniu os principais prejuízos de memória desde que realizada em ate 10 horas apos a injeção do veneno (foram testados intervalos de 0, 0,5, 2, 10 e 24 horas, em grupos independentes de animais)..O grupo tratado com soro anti-crotálico 24 horas depois do envenenamento apesar de prejudicado em relação aos grupos controle (um injetado com salina e o outro apenas com soro), exibiu desempenho melhor do que o grupo tratado apenas com veneno. Assim, o presente conjunto de resultados representam a primeira demonstração de que (1) uma única dose sistêmica do veneno crotálico produz prejuízos de memória espacial em ratos e aumenta os níveis de ansiedade avaliados 4 semanas apos a injeção, e (2) os prejuízos de memória podem ser prevenidos pela administração de soro anticrotálico desde que essa administração ocorra em ate 10 horas apos o envenenamento. / Snakebites constitute a serious public health problem in Brazil. Prior studies have shown that systemic injections of venom fractions of Crotalus durissus terrificus produce acute increase in anxiety levels in rats; when injected topically within the hippocampal formation, a brain region underlying processes of spatial memory and anxiety, induce damage. The aims of this study included to investigate, in rats, behavioral effects of a single systemic injection of crude venom on performance of spatial memory tasks and on anxiety, and the efficacy and time course of the antivenom administration to prevent memory disruption. Rats subjected to a single systemic injection of venom 7 days before the beginning of behavioral testing were evaluated in modified versions of the reference and working memory tasks in the water maze, and also to a version of the task in which the platform is visible. Then, the subjects were submitted to the test-retest paradigm in the elevated plus maze. Rats injected with the venom exhibited disruption of performance both in reference and working memory versions of the water maze task; in this latter task, however, disruption occurred when the intertrial interval was 10 minutes but not when the it was zero minutes. Anti-crotalic serum injection prevented memory disruptions when its administration occurred up to 10 hours after injection of the venom (time intervals evaluated included 0, 0.5, 2, 10 and 24 hours, in independent groups of rats). Subjects that received anti-crotalic serum 24 hours after venom injection exhibited disruption of memory relative to control groups (one of them treated with saline and the other with anti-crotalic serum only); however, performance of those animals was better when compared to subjects receiving only venom administration. These results show, to our knowledge for the first time, that (1) a single systemic injection of crotalic venom induces disruption of spatial memory and increases anxiety evaluated 4 weeks after injection, and (2) major spatial memory disruptions may be prevented by administration of the anti-crotalic serum up to 10 hours after the venom injection.

As serpentes são animais ectotérmicos capazes de modificar seu comportamento termorregulatório e consequentemente sua temperatura corpórea para otimizar o desempenho de determinadas atividades, dentre elas, a reprodução. Segundo vários estudos, a reprodução é um dos fatores fisiológicos mais influenciados pela seleção de temperatura corpórea em Squamata. Fêmeas reprodutivas de muitas espécies têm apresentado termofilia gestacional. Esse comportamento tem corroborado a hipótese de manipulação materna da temperatura ótima para o desenvolvimento embrionário, com isso, a fêmea garante o fenótipo da prole e seu sucesso reprodutivo. Aqui investigamos a influência do status reprodutivo na biologia termal de fêmeas de Crotalus durissus em cativeiro semiextensivo. Para isso, foram utilizados sensores de temperatura interna (datalogger) inseridos cirurgicamente na cavidade celomática de fêmeas prenhes e não prenhes. As análises dos dados demonstraram que fêmeas prenhes mantiveram a média de temperatura corpórea significativamente mais elevadas do que fêmeas não prenhes no verão. No entanto, a variação da Tc de fêmeas prenhes não difere de fêmeas não prenhes. O benefício mais frequentemente citado sobre a evolução da viviparidade, é que fêmeas prenhes podem acelerar o desenvolvimento embrionário por meio da termorregulação. A elevação e estabilidade da temperatura corpórea durante a gestação têm sido consideradas o mecanismo primordial para assegurar o desenvolvimento embrionário. Desta forma, aumenta o fitness da prole e garante a viabilidade da ninhada. Os dados apresentados aqui demonstram que a condição reprodutiva de fêmeas prenhes de Crotalus durissus tem grande influência sobre a seleção de temperaturas mais elevadas, corroborando com a hipótese de que fêmeas alteram o comportamento termorregulatório quando estão prenhes. / Snakes are ectothermic animals capable of modifying their thermoregulatory behavior and consequently their body temperature to optimize the performance of certain activities, among them, reproduction. According to several studies, reproduction is one of the physiological factors most influenced by the selection of body temperature in Squamata. Reproductive females of many species have shown gestational thermophily. This behavior has corroborated the hypothesis of maternal manipulation of the optimum temperature for embryonic development, therefore, the female assures the phenotype of offspring and their reproductive success. Here we investigate the influence of reproductive status on the thermal biology of Crotalusdurissus females in semiextensive captivity. For this, internal temperature sensors (dataloggers) were inserted surgically in the coelomic cavity of pregnant and non-pregnant females. Data analyzes demonstrated that pregnant females maintained significantly higher mean body temperature than non-pregnant females in the summer. However, the body temperature variation of pregnant females does not differ from non-pregnant females. The most frequently cited benefit on the evolution of viviparity is that pregnant females can accelerate embryonic development through thermoregulation. The elevation and stability of body temperature during pregnancy have been considered the primordial mechanism to ensure the embryonic development. Thus, it increases the fitness of offspring and ensures the viability of the clutch. The data presented here, demonstrate that the reproductive condition of pregnant females of Crotalus durissus has great influence on the selection of higher temperatures, corroborating with the hypothesis that females alter the thermoregulatory behavior when they are pregnant.

A Crotoxina, o principal componente do veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus, vem sendo estudada desde 1938. É um complexo polipeptídico natural com grande potencial farmacológico especialmente por seu efeito antitumoral, propriedade que tem despertado o interesse para o diagnóstico e o tratamento do câncer. Entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre seu mecanismo de ação e os sítios com os quais interage em células tumorais. O câncer de mama é o segundo tipo de câncer mais freqüente no mundo e o mais comum entre as mulheres. Cerca de 30 a 60% dos tumores mamários apresentam expressão aumentada de receptores do fator de crescimento epidérmico (EGFR), uma proteína transmembrana que desencadeia a proliferação celular. A partir de dados da literatura mostrando que o efeito antitumoral da Crotoxina é mais potente em células que superexpressam EGFR, estabeleceu-se o objetivo deste trabalho: avaliar os efeitos citotóxicos desse polipeptídeo sobre os tumores de origem mamária MCF-7 (carcinoma humano) e Ehrlich (carcinoma murino ascítico) e realizar um estudo de interação molecular da Crotoxina com células de tumor de Ehrlich. Inicialmente, a Crotoxina foi radiomarcada com iodo-125 (125I-Crotoxina) e iodo-131 (131I-Crotoxina). Ensaios de saturação e competição foram realizados para caracterizar a interação da Crotoxina in vitro, enquanto que a interação in vivo foi avaliada através da biodistribuição e obtenção de imagens em tomografia por emissão de fóton único (SPECT) do composto radiomarcado em camundongos portadores de tumor de Ehrlich. Os resultados evidenciaram que o polipeptídeo apresentou um potente efeito citotóxico sobre as células de tumor de Ehrlich, com valor de DL50 in vitro (concentração do composto que produziu 50% de morte celular) próximo de 1 micromolar, mas não apresentou efeito significativo sobre a linhagem MCF-7. Alterações morfológicas nas células de tumor de Ehrlich tratadas com Crotoxina sugerem indução de morte celular programada. A interação da 125I-Crotoxina com as células de Ehrlich foi saturável com cerca de 70% de especificidade, com Kd= 24,98 nmol/L e Bmax= 16570 sítios/célula para sítios de baixa afinidade e com Kd= 0,06 nmol/L e Bmax=210 sítios/célula para sítios de alta afinidade. O polipeptídeo radiomarcado apresentou menor especificidade (cerca de 37%) para a linhagem MCF-7. O EGF competiu com 20% dos sítios específicos da 125I-Crotoxina indicando que Crotoxina e EGF compartilham parcialmente sítios específicos em células de Ehrlich. Através do estudo de biodistribuição, observou-se que houve captação significativa de 125I-Crotoxina no tumor (razão tumor/músculo esquelético de 18,55) no período de 3 horas após administração deste composto. As imagens SPECT também evidenciaram captação diferenciada pelo tumor, mostrando interação in vivo da 131I-Crotoxina com células de tumor de Ehrlich. O conjunto dos resultados sugere que Crotoxina apresenta potente efeito antitumoral sobre células de Ehrlich e que este efeito é devido pelo menos parcialmente à interação específica com sítios de alta e baixa afinidade. Os sítios de baixa afinidade se correlacionam com o EGFR e os de alta afinidade ainda necessitam de mais investigação para melhor caracterização. Estes resultados corroboram o potencial da Crotoxina como ferramenta para radiodiagnóstico capaz de diferenciar células tumorais. / Crotoxin, the main component of Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom, has been studied since 1938. It is a natural polypeptidic complex with pharmacological potential because of its antitumoral properties wich has attracted great interest for diagnosis and therapy of oncological deseases. However, Crotoxin mechanism of action and sites of specific interaction on tumor cells are still misunderstood. Breast cancer is the second most frequent type in the world and the most common cancer in women. About 30 to 60% of mammary tumors overexpress epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a transmembrane protein related to cell proliferation. Since literature has reported that Crotoxin antitumoral effect is more potent on cells with EGFR overexpression the objectives of this work were to evaluate Crotoxin cytotoxic effects on mammary tumor cells human breast carcinoma (MCF-7) and Ehrlich tumor cells (murine ascitics carcinoma), and to investigate the specific molecular interaction of Crotoxin on Ehrlich tumor cells. Inititally, Crotoxin was radiolabelled with iodine-125 (125I-Crotoxin) and iodine-131 (131I-Crotoxin). Saturation and competition assay were carried out to characterize Crotoxin in vitro interaction; Crotoxin biodistribution studies and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) of mice bearing Ehrlich tumor have been evaluated to describe in vivo interaction. Our results showed that Crotoxin presented cytotoxic effect against Ehrlich with DL50 in vitro (concentration of compound which is lethal for 50% of cells) of about one micromolar, but did not present significative effect against MCF-7. Morphological alterations characteristic of apoptosis suggests programmed cell death. 125I-Crotoxin interaction with Ehrlich tumor cells was saturable with approximately 70% specificity, and presented Kd=24.98 nmol/L and Bmax=16,570 sites/cell for low affinity binding sites and Kd=0.06 nmol/L e Bmax=210 sites/cell high affinity binding sites; moreover, the radiolabeled polypeptide interaction showed low specificity toward to MCF-7 (37%). EGF reduced 20% of 125I-Crotoxin specific binding, so specific binding sites of Crotoxin on Ehrlich tumor cells partially overlap to EGFR. Crotoxin biodistribution studies showed significant uptake in the tumor paw (tumor/skeletal muscle ratio= 18.55), three hours after administration. SPECT imaging also showed tumor uptake confirming in vivo interaction with Ehrlich tumor cells. Crotoxin had an antitumoral effect on Ehrlich tumor cells and this action is due, at least partially, to the specific interaction with low and high affinity binding sites. Low affinity binding sites correlate EGFR and high affinity binding sites still need identification. These results confirm Crotoxin as a template for radiopharmaceutical design for cancer diagnosis and as a tool for cancer studies, increasing its biotechnological potential.

Plant carbon isotopes were used to track assimilation of riparian resources by small mammals. Voles and shrews derived significant portions of their carbon from riparian vegetation. Deer and harvest mice were abundant in riparian habitat but assimilated little riparian vegetation indicating that the riparian corridor provided resources other than food. This is first use of stable carbon isotopes to trace riparian resources into a vertebrate community. Conifer encroachment in sagebrush ecosystems negatively affects many wildlife populations. Conifer removal is recommended across millions of hectares in the Great Basin. However the effects of conifer encroachment and conifer removal are unknown for most wildlife species. We show that the consequences of conifer encroachment, a press impact, far outweigh the pulse impact of sagebrush restoration, on small mammal diversity. Lack of demographic data limit the development of effective management, conservation and recovery goals for rattlesnakes. We used a long-term dataset and capture mark recapture models to quantify demography of four rattlesnake populations. Mean population growth indicated an overall stable population across the study, with two of the four sites declining. Survival overwhelmingly contributed to population growth relative to recruitment. No small mammals drank stream water even during periods of environmentally high water stress and high aridity, extension of the linear regression equation for small mammal body water towards the meteoric waterline, captures stream water, the weighted mean average for regional meteoric waters. Similar regression of fossilized small mammal tissues would also capture local meteoric waters. Even in arid regions, small mammal fossils are a suitable proxy for climate reconstructions. In the Great Basin, snowmelt overwhelmingly contributes to local precipitation, plant production, and stream flows. Snowmelt supports riparian and upland plants, and small mammals. Rattlesnakes prey primarily on small mammals, indirectly depending on snow melt for survival and reproduction. Climate models and rattlesnake emergence strongly indicate an earlier onset of spring and reduced ratio of snow to rain. Declining snowpack will have major impacts on biodiversity and management such as riparian vegetation, native plant restoration, trophic interactions, and ecological goods and services.

I combined long-term ecological data and population genetic data using microsatellite DNA markers to examine among- and within-population genetic structure and parentage in Tiger Rattlesnake (Crotalus tigris) populations from the Tucson Basin of southern Arizona located in the northern Sonoran Desert. Based on long-term data from radio telemetry, I determined that C. tigris show strong fidelity to both their home range and winter shelter sites, remaining in close proximity to rocky habitats within mountain ranges, which leads to apparent natural isolation of populations. Therefore, I predicted that C. tigris populations would show substantial genetic differentiation among mountain ranges. However, Bayesian clustering analyses revealed a surprising pattern of extensive admixture among mountain ranges, indicating the presence of gene flow among populations. This pattern of genetic admixture can likely be explained by historical changes in climate and physiognomy in the Sonoran Desert. Analyses of pack rat midden remains clearly show that mountain ranges were previously connected by mesic woodland habitats that may have led to panmixia in C. tigris populations as recently as 5,000-8,000 years ago. At present, C. tigris show a strong preference for xeroriparian washes, which allows individuals to occasionally move relatively long distances, likely resulting in contemporary gene flow. To maintain connections among mountain ranges, I recommend effective management, protection, and restoration (if needed) of wash habitats, which also act as corridors for a suite of other species. At the within population scale, genetic clustering analyses revealed the existence of fine-scale genetic structure in C. tigris subpopulations located in the Rincon Mountains. Further analyses based on location data of individuals indicated the existence of a potential barrier to gene flow, which corresponded to a watershed divide. Although the watershed divide would appear not to present a physical barrier to gene flow, it likely acts to segregate populations based on habitat and movement preferences associated with wash habitats. Data on spatial ecology and reproductive behavior, indicate that C. tigris distribute gametes across the landscape in the absence of actual displacement of individuals due to fidelity to home ranges and winter shelter sites. Analyses of parentage were constrained by the difficulty in obtaining offspring from gravid female C. tigris that give birth deep in rock outcrops. However, I did conduct analyses on over 30 offspring from known mothers and nearly 60 free-ranging offspring found while conducting ecological research. Surprisingly, not a single male C. tigris found courting or copulating with a female was identified as the father, indicating that reproductive behavior is a poor predictor of parentage, and therefore, fitness. Interestingly, males identified as fathers were found up to 2 km distance from their offspring, demonstrating that males from surrounding areas may move relatively long distances to mate. The mating system of C. tigris, which is characterized by promiscuity in both sexes, appears to drive dramatic differences in spatial ecology between males and females, and may lead to fine-scale genetic structure among females and not males who spend a great deal of time searching for receptive females.