Introdução: Como a terapia antirretroviral (TARV) atualmente permite que um número maior de crianças infectadas pelo HIV atinja a idade adulta, passam ser relevante questões como a imunossenescência precoce e a exaustão celular, semelhante ao observado em adultos infectados pelo HIV. Objetivos: Avaliar se a idade de início da TARV modifica os padrões de ativação imune, senescência e resposta vacinal em crianças infectadas perinatalmente pelo HIV. Desenho do estudo: Estudo transversal, exploratório. Métodos: Obtivemos dados de prontuários de pacientes e cartões de imunização e coletamos sangue para sorologias e isolamento de células mononucleares do sangue periférico (CMSP). Os critérios de elegibilidade incluíram: idade < 18 anos, TARV por pelo menos 6 meses e carga viral < 50 cópias/mL. Anticorpos de proteção (Ac) para Hepatite A e B, Rubéola e Caxumba foram medidos. Células T com marcadores de senescência (CD57 +), anergia (CD28-), apoptose (CD95 +), ativação (CD38 +, CCR5 +, HLA-DR +) e exaustão (PD-1 +) foram analisadas por citometria de fluxo. Resultados: foram incluídas 56 crianças, com idade mediana de 12 anos e tempo mediano de TARV de 9 anos. A mediana das contagens de LTCD4 + foi de 1010 células/mm3 (%mediano = 36,7%) e a média da razão LTCD4+/LTCD8+ foi de 1,6. A proteção das vacinas foi a seguinte: 80% para Hepatite A, 64% para Hepatite B, 57% para Rubéola e 44% para Caxumba. A idade mais precoce de início da TARV se correlacionou negativamente com LTCD4+ mais altos, LTCD4+ Nadir mais alto, maior razão LTCD4+/LTCD8+ e maiores títulos de Ac para a caxumba e a rubéola. Houve correlação positiva da idade de início de TARV e marcadores de ativação, apoptose, senescência e exaustão em LTCD4+ e LTCD8+. Tais marcadores se relacionaram com pior resposta vacinal. Houve benefício em crianças iniciando TARV < 6m na preservação da homeostase e resposta imune. Conclusão: Houve benefícios do início precoce da TARV na preservação de LTCD4+ e da resposta vacinal, e na prevenção da maturação e senescência imune neste grupo de crianças perinatalmente infectadas pelo HIV. / Background: As successful antiretroviral therapy (ART) allows a larger number of HIV-infected children to reach adulthood, issues such as early immune senescence and exhaustion arise, similar to what is seen in HIV-infected adults. Objectives: To evaluate whether time of ART initiation modified patterns of immune activation, senescence and vaccine response in PHIC Design: Cross-sectional, exploratory study. Methods: We obtained data from patient charts and immunization cards, and collected blood for serology and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) isolation. Eligibility criteria included age < 18 years, ART for at least 6 months and viral load < 50 RNA copies/mL. Protective antibodies (Ab) for Hepatitis A and B, Rubella and Mumps were measured. T cells with markers for senescence (CD57+), anergy (CD28-), apoptosis (CD95+), activation (CD38+, CCR5+, HLA-DR+) and exhaustion (PD-1+) were analyzed by flow cytometry. Results: 56 children were included: their median age was 12 years and median time on ART was 9 years. Median LTCD4+ counts were 1010 cells/mm3 (median % 36,7%) and mean LTCD4+/LTCD8+ ratio was 1.6. Vaccine protection was as follows: 80% for Hepatitis A, 64% for Hepatitis B, 57% for Rubella and 44% for Mumps. Earlier age at ART initiation was negatively correlated with higher LTCD4+, higher nadir LTCD4+, higher LTCD4+/LTCD8+ ratio, and higher Ab titers for Mumps and Rubella. There was positive correlation of age at ART initiation and activation, apoptosis, senescence and exhaustion markers in LTCD4+ and LTCD8+. Markers correlated with poorer vaccine response. There was benefit in children starting ART < 6m in preserving immune homeostasis and response. Conclusion: There were benefits of early ART initiation in preserving LTCD4+ and vaccine response, and in preventing immune maturation and senescence in this group of PHIC

In this dissertation I provide an ethnographic account of the testimony of four expert witnesses who appeared before the Commission of Inquiry on the Blood System in Canada (the Krever Inquiry) as they described the production of scientific knowledge and the role that knowledge played in the struggle to protect the blood supply from being contaminated by AIDS during the early 1980's. In doing so, I bring together the experts' testimony with contemporary documents gathered by the Commission and interviews I conducted with participants in the proceedings. Using insights drawn from the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and history, I explore what the witnesses' accounts reveal about their understandings of their professional world and its relationships with other worlds, especially that of public health policy making. The Krever Inquiry offered a valuable opportunity for carrying out such an investigation. It provided a site where science was not only used, it was talked about. The Inquiry invited those involved in the blood system in the early 1980's to reflect upon and explain the beliefs and actions which surrounded one of the worst public health disasters in Canadian history and it asked the witnesses how similar catastrophes could be avoided in the future. As a result, many of the issues addressed at the hearings reflect matters of current concern in public health and medicine. The Inquiry addressed difficult issues surrounding the nature of scientific knowledge and its application in health decision-making and policy formulation. This study, therefore, may be of interest to those dealing with the problems surrounding uncertainty and the management of public health crises. It may also be of interest to those dealing with conflicts rising out of the intersection of different worlds of experience and practice, as well as to those involved in the current initiatives to both make medical and public health institutions more proactive, and inclusive, and public health decision-making more transparent.

Abstract: Introduction: Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of an infant's life is recommended worldwide. In 1998 the South African Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) showed that only 10% of mothers exclusively breastfeed at three months. As the HIV virus is transmissible via breast milk, UNAIDS (2002) recommends that women in developing countries should be given a choice of feeding method after being counselled on the risks and benefits of breast feeding versus formula feeding. As a result, the Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme was launched in KwaZulu-Natal with the aim of providing interventions to prevent Mother-to-Child Transmission of the HIV virus. However, research has shown that infant feeding practices are influenced by numerous factors. Ultimately mothers will feed their infants in a manner they feel comfortable with, even if it is not always the most appropriate choice. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine and compare current infant feeding practices and some of the factors that influenced these practices among Zulu mothers with 0 - 6 month old infants attending PMTCT and non-PMTCT clinics in Central Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Methodology: A cross-sectional, descriptive survey was conducted amongst 150 mothers sampled from three non-PMTCT clinics and 150 mothers sampled from three PMTCT clinics. Systematic random sampling of mothers attending the two types of clinics was used to ensure an equal number of mothers· with infants aged 0 - < 6 weeks, 6 - < 14 weeks and 14 weeks to 6 months. The number of mothers interviewed per clinic was determined proportionate to clinic size. Interviews were conducted in Zulu by trained fieldworkers according to a structured interview schedule consisting of 87 open- and closed-ended questions. Summary of most important findings and conclusion: Overall, one quarter of the mothers attending non-PMTCT and one third of mothers at PMTCT clinics were practising exclusive breastfeeding at the time of the survey. The general trend was that mothers attending PMTCT clinics were more inclined than those attending non-PMTCT clinics to breastfeed their infants exclusively (34% versus 24% respectively) or to formula feed (16,7% versus 12,7% respectively). Furthermore, there was a significant decline in exclusive breastfeeding and predominant breastfeeding with increasing infant age in both clinic groups. The opposite held true for mixed feeding and formula feeding in that infants were more inclined to mixed feeding or formula feeding with increasing infant age. In both clinic groups, exclusive breastfeeding was the method of choice in the 0 - < 6 week age category, while a preference for mixed feeding was shown in the 6 - < 14 week category. This trend persisted in the 14 week - < 6 month age category, especially in the non-PMTCT clinics, while there was a small but pronounced increase in formula feeding amongst PMTCT mothers. Although these findings can be explained as a result of implementing the PMTCT programme, the positive trends observed in non-PMTCT clinics serve as an indicator that the Integrated Nutrition Programme (INP) and Baby Friendly Hospital initiative have also had an impact on the feeding choices mothers make. Despite the limited duration of the PMTCT programme at the time of the study, indicators of the impact of the intervention include that a lower percentage of PMTCT mothers introduced foods and/or liquids in addition to breast milk to their infants before six months of age compared to non-PMTCT mothers. Furthermore, more mothers attending PMTCT clinics were shown how to breastfeed and were more likely to have received information about formula feeding. Despite these indicators of a positive impact of the PMTCT programme, the mean age for introducing liquids and/or solids in addition to breast milk was about six weeks and the incidence of this practice was very high for both groups. The similar incidence of formula feeding observed between the two clinic groups suggests the presence of constraints to safe infant feeding choices among mothers attending PMTCT clinics. As observed, infant feeding practices were still not ideal in either of the two clinic groups. However, the high level of antenatal clinic attendance documented for both groups serves as evidence that, if opportunities for providing mothers with appropriate infant feeding advice are utilized optimally, the antenatal clinic could serve as an ideal medium through which infant feeding education can take place, especially as the clinic-based nursing staff were cited as the most important source of infant feeding information by both groups of mothers in the antenatal and postnatal phases. The documented infant feeding practices should be interpreted against the backdrop of factors such as socio-demographic characteristics of the mothers, availability of resources such as social support from peers and significant others and reigning infant feeding beliefs that could influence infant feeding decisions. Predictors of exclusive breastfeeding in PMTCT and non-PMTCT clinics were determined by means of multivariate logistic regression analysis. Significant values were obtained for both clinic groups in terms of the infant not having received liquids in addition to breast milk. No additional predictors were found amongst mothers attending non-PMTCT clinics, however predictors amongst mothers attending PMTCT clinics included whether the mother had not visited the clinic since the infant's birth, whether she practiced demand feeding and whether she was experiencing stress at the time of the study. The limited number of predictors of exclusive breastfeeding documented in this study, especially among non-PMTCT mothers may be explained by the fact that infant feeding behaviour is multifactorial by nature and the interaction between factors that influence feeding choice is strong. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

In July 2011, The Malawi government started implementing an innovative PMTCT policy known as Option B+ strategy that provides universal lifelong ART for all HIV-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women regardless of clinical or immunological stage. Even though Option B+ strategy is a good choice for Malawi, there is fear that the programme may be affected by poor access, utilisation, adherence and retention. Aim: The aim of this study was to explore the lived experiences of HIV-positive women on Option B+ strategy in a selected district hospital in Malawi. Methodology: A Hermeneutics phenomenological approach was used in this study to explore the lived experiences of HIV-positive women on Option B+ strategy through in-depth interviews of five purposely sampled information rich sources. Interviews were audio-taped and transcribed, then manual data analysis using Giorgi’s approach was employed to identify meaningful segments and develop categories, themes and sub-themes. Results: The lifelong commitment was described as the most challenging aspect of Option B+ strategy. Participants demonstrated lack of knowledge and understanding of Option B+ strategy and its implications which rendered them poorly prepared and unready for the task. The un optional Opt-out HIV testing resulted in participants feeling left out in their own care, as health professionals dominated the care from HIV testing throughout the process. The importance of male involvement in PMTCT was revealed in promoting partner HIV testing, disclosure, support, and prevention of further HIV spread. Barriers to participation were described in terms of attitudes of health care workers, stigma and discrimination. Despite the overemphasised need for women to be supported on Option B+ strategy participants were not willing to seek available sources of formal support. / Thesis (M.N.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

Thesis (MNutr (Interdisciplinary Health Sciences. Human Nutrition))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Objective: Primary: To investigate the effect of pasteurisation on the composition of expressed breast milk from HIV positive mothers and its adequacy in relation to the growth of their VLBW premature infants. Methods: A descriptive, prospective case-controlled pilot study was performed in 3 regional state hospitals in the Western Cape, South Africa. The control and study groups consisted of 12 HIV negative and 11 HIV positive mothers, with their VLBW premature infants, respectively. All mothers (19 - 35 years old) belonged to the Xhosa ethnic group. All infants were born <34 weeks gestation and birth weight <1500g. Eight breast milk samples were collected on days 6, 7, 13, 14, 20, 21, 27 and 28 from all mothers during the first 28 days after birth. Breast milk was expressed by hand or pump from either the right or left breast. Half of each breast milk sample was kept raw. The remaining sample was Pretoria pasteurised, after which both samples were subdivided into 3 or 4 aliquots to determine energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat, folate, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, otassium, iron, copper, zinc content and HI viral load (study group only). The mothers’ dietary intake during pregnancy and lactation was obtained by means of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire and repeated 24-hour recall respectively. The infants’ dietary intake was recorded daily. Mothers’ anthropometric measurements taken at study entry and exit were weight, height and mid-upper arm circumference. All infants’ daily weight, as well as length and head circumference at birth and on day 28 postpartum was obtained. Biochemical analysis was performed on the blood samples obtained at study entry and exit from all mothers and infants. For statistical analysis, Statistica® (release no 7, 2006) was used for repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the effect of HIV, pasteurisation, milk expression and time on the composition of the breast milk. Results: There was no significant difference in the studied macro- and micronutrient composition between raw or pasteurised expressed breast milk from HIV positive and HIV negative mothers with premature infants. A significant decline in breast milk protein (p<0.01), magnesium (p=0.045), potassium (p=0.002), zinc (p<0.01) and copper (p=0.03) content was observed for the whole study population over time, while folic acid content increased significantly (p=0.012) over time. The sodium/potassium ratio of both groups remained strongly indicative of the presence of sub-clinical mastitis. A significant (p=0.03) greater mean volume of milk was obtained with pump [42.5 Standard Deviation (SD) 18.1 ml], compared to hand expression [36.7 (16.7) ml]. Method of expression did not result in a significant difference in breast milk composition for any of the nutrients studied. Eight (35%) infants were born SGA while 21 (91%) infants were SGA on day 28. The infants gained a mean of 16.37 (4.5) g/kg/day (i.e. 91% of the recommended growth rate of >18g/kg/day) from the day on which birth weight was regained. The control and study group infants respectively consumed a mean of 3.27 (1.36) and 3.21 (1.36) g protein/kg/day and 138.1 (33.8) and 142.3 (33.8) kcal total energy/kg/day. This corresponds to a PER of 2.6 (control group) and 2.5 (study group) respectively, which cannot provide for the increased growth needs of the SGA infant in need of catch-up growth. Six infants experienced an incident of Grade 1 NEC which resolved and all completed the study. Two (18%) HIV-exposed infants were found to be HIV positive at 28 days post delivery. Four participating infants died. No adverse event or mortality was related to the study protocol as no intervention was undertaken. Conclusion: HIV positive Xhosa mothers provide as nutritious breast milk to their VLBW premature infants as HIV negative Xhosa mothers. Maternal nutrient intake during pregnancy and lactation did not have a significant effect on the nutritional composition of breast milk, except for folate content.

High frequencies of CTL recognizing laboratory strains of HIV-1 are present in HIV-1 infected adults as early as preseroconversion. The presence of HIV-1 specific CTL during primary infection has been correlated with better control of early viremia and a more delayed onset of CD4 lymphocyte loss. Previous experiments in our laboratory have demonstrated that, unlike HIV-1 infected adults, the majority of vertically infected infants lack CTL which recognize laboratory strains of HIV-1 within the first year of life. ADCC antibody responses against laboratory strains of HIV-1 env gene products are also delayed until at least two years of age. As a possible correlate, disease progression is also more rapid in vertically infected infants. We hypothesized that HIV-1-specific CTL are type-specific in early infancy and that the use of target cells expressing laboratory strain gene products might limit the detection of HIV-1-specific CTL. To address this hypothesis, HIV-1 env genes from early isolates of four infants were PCR amplified, cloned, and used to generate recombinant vaccinia vectors (vv). The frequencies of CTL precursors (CTLp) recognizing env gene products from autologous isolates and the IIIB strain of HIV-1 were measured at time points from early infancy to 19 months using limiting dilution analysis (LDA). ADCC titers were also measured against autologous and IIIB env gene products at 4 time points spanning 2 months to 2 years of age. CTL precursors from 3 of 4 of these patients were specific only for autologous HIV-1 env gene products during the first 6 to 12 months of age. A pattern of CTL responsiveness was observed in these 3 patients in which type-specific CTL precursors observed in early infancy were replaced by cross-reactive, group-specific CTL by 6 to 12 months of age. CTL precursors from a fourth patient at 12 months of age recognized IIIB env and 1 out of 2 envs derived from 2 autologous viral isolates. High titers titers of ADCC antibodies against autologous env were detected in two infants prior to the detection of ADCC antibodies to IIIB. In two other infants, group specific ADCC antibody responses were detected in late infancy. Our results demonstrate that young infants can mount HIV-1 specific CTL and ADCC responses. The ability of young infants to mount cellular immune responses to HIV-1 also provides support for the concept of perinatal vaccination to prevent HIV-1 transmission. Furthermore. the lack of broadly-reactive CTL in early infancy suggests that the use of vaccines based on laboratory strains of HIV-1 may not afford protection from vertical infection.

This study proposes to directly test the hypothesis that antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) is the critical factor in the development of dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) in infants. DHF occurs in two distinct clinical settings: a) in children and adults with secondary DENV infection, and b) in infants with primary DENV infection born to mothers with prior DENV infection. The ADE hypothesis proposes that pre-existing serotype-cross-reactive non-neutralizing anti-DENV antibodies bind the heterotypic DENV during secondary infection and enhance its uptake into immune cells, leading to increased viral load and DHF. This model suggests that DHF in DENV-infected infants is caused by the enhancing effect of waning maternal anti-DENV antibodies, thus causing a “physiologic secondary infection” during an infant’s primary infection and thereby increasing the infant’s risk for DHF. The effect of maternal immunity on DHF in infants has been studied exclusively in Southeast Asia. However, the maternal DENV seroprevalence approaches 100% in this part of the world. As a consequence, the ADE model of infant DHF cannot truly be tested in Southeast Asia, because all infants possess anti-DENV antibody at birth. In the Western Hemisphere, by contrast, women may have experienced either a single DENV infection, more than one DENV infection, or no DENV infection at all. The ability to include DENV-seronegative mothers as controls allows for the ADE hypothesis to be directly tested in a clinical study. To our knowledge, no such study has been previously conducted. This thesis presents a case-control study designed to evaluate the influence of positive maternal dengue seroprevalence on the risk of DHF in infants. As the MSCI program provides instruction in study design, this thesis does not present findings. The clinical trial described herein began in May 2010 and enrollment is expected to continue through May 2012 (see Table 4).

INTRODUÇÃO: Em junho de 2009 a Organização Mundial de Saúde declarou pandemia de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09. Esse novo vírus teve grande impacto na saúde mundial, foi responsável por 90% dos casos de influenza no mundo com apresentação clínica diferente da sazonal, acometendo indivíduos jovens e causando milhares de óbitos. O Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo foi referência para atendimento de casos graves. Por se tratar de um vírus novo houve controvérsias em relação a medidas de precaução e em relação ao afastamento dos profissionais de saúde (PAS). Devido a elevada incidência de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 também ocorreram casos entre os profissionais da área da saúde (PAS). OBJETIVOS: Geral: Avaliar os fatores de risco para aquisição de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 entre profissionais da área da saúde. Específico: Comparar características clínicas e de exposição dos casos de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 em comparação a outros casos sintomáticos respiratórios entre profissionais da área da saúde MÉTODOS: Estudo caso-controle no qual foram criados três grupos e divididos em: sintomático respiratório H1N1-positivo, sintomático respiratório H1N1-negativo e controle assintomático. RESULTADOS: 274 PAS foram avaliados: 52 sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1-positivo, 120 sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1-negativo e 102 controles assintomáticos. Na análise multivariada que comparou sintomático respiratório H1N1-positivo com assintomáticos, presença de comorbidades/fatores de risco (OR=16,31; IC de 95%; 4,08-65,07) e contato desprotegido durante atendimento a caso suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 em outro Hospital (OR=12,77; IC de 95%; 1,35-121,52) foram fatores de risco independentes para aquisição de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09. Contato social ou com colega de trabalho suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 (OR=0,11; IC de 95%; 0,04-0,28) e uso de transporte público (OR=0,19; IC de 95%; 0,07-0,50) foram considerados fatores protetores para aquisição de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09. Ao comparar os grupos sintomáticos, as variáveis residir com criança de 5 anos até 12 anos, febre e conjuntivite foram mais frequentes entre os sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1-positivo e coriza e dor de garganta foram mais frequentes no grupo sintomático respiratório H1N1-negativo. Quatro hospitalizações e 1 óbito ocorreram entre os sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1-positivo e 1 hospitalização e nenhum óbito nos sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1-negativo. CONCLUSÕES: presença de comorbidade/fatores de risco e contato desprotegido durante atendimento a caso suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 em outro hospital foram considerados fatores de risco para aquisição de influenza A (H1N1)pdm09. Uso de transporte público e contato social ou com colega de trabalho suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 foram fatores protetores. Ter contato desprotegido durante atendimento a caso suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 em outro hospital, ser da categoria profissional médica, ter tido contato com caso suspeito e/ou confirmado para influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 em casa, residir com criança de 5 anos até 12 anos, hospitalização e óbito e os sintomas febre e conjuntivite foram mais frequentes entre os sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1 positivo. Dor de garganta e coriza foram mais frequentes entre os sintomáticos respiratórios H1N1 negativo / INTRODUCTION: In June 2009 the World Health Organization declared influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 pnademic. This new virus had great impact on global health and accounted for 90% of cases of influenza in the world. It affected young people and caused thousands of deaths. The Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo was a reference for the treatment of severe cases. Because it was a new virus there were controversies regarding the precautions and HCW sick leave policies. OBJECTIVE: General-To evaluate risk factors for acquisition of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 among health care workers (HCW). Specific: To compare clinical and exposure characteristics of cases of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 with other respiratory symptomatic infections among HCW. METHODS: Case-control study with three groups: symptomatic H1N1-positive cases, symptomatic H1N1-negative cases and asymptomatic controls. RESULTS: 274 HCW were evaluated: 52 symptomatic H1N1-positive cases, 120 symptomatic H1N1-negative cases and 102 asymptomatic controls. In the multivariate analysis that compared H1N1- symptomatic H1N1-positive cases with asymptomatic controls, comorbidities/risk factors (OR=16.31; 95% CI 4.08-65.07) and unprotected contact during caring for a confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 in another hospital (OR=12.77, 95% CI; 1.35- 121.52) were independent risk factors for pandemic influenza infection among HCW. Social contact or contact with co-worker with confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 (OR=0.11; 95% CI, 0.04- 0.28) and use of public transportation (OR= 0.19; 95% CI, 0.07- 0.50) were protective. Comparing symptomatics groups, unprotected contact during caring for a confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 in another hospital, to be a medical doctor, contact for or a confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 at home, reside with child from 5 to 12 years, fever and conjunctivitis were more common among symptomatic H1N1-positive cases and coryza and sore throat were more frequent symptomatic H1N1-negative cases. Four hospitalizations and one death occurred among symptomatic H1N1-positive cases and one hospitalization and no deaths in symptomatic H1N1-negative cases. CONCLUSIONS: Comorbidity/risk factors and unprotected contact during caring for confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 in another hospital were considered risk factors for acquisition of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09. Use of public transportation and social contact or contact with co-worker with confirmed or suspected case of influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 were protective factors. To live with child from 5 to 12 years, hospitalization and death and the symptoms of fever and conjunctivitis were more frequent among symptomatic H1N1-positive cases. Sore throat and coryza more frequent among patients with symptomatic H1N1-negative cases

Estudou-se prospectivamente o comportamento das calcificações, da atrofia, das alterações da substância branca e alterações vasculares nas imagens de tomografia computadorizada de crânio de 162 crianças e adolescentes infectados pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) por transmissão vertical e que estavam ou estiveram em acompanhamento clínico no Ambulatório de Infectologia Pediátrica do Instituto da Criança do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, entre 1992 e 2002. Analisaram-se as possíveis correlações entre estas alterações e seu aspecto evolutivo. Para tal finalidade, foram avaliadas 606 tomografias computadorizadas de crânio (média de 3,74 exames por paciente), as quais constituíram o grupo de estudo. Após a caracterização quanto à presença ou não das alterações supracitadas, e suas possíveis inter-relações, realizou-se a análise estatística dos resultados obtidos através do teste exato de Fisher com nível de significância de 5%. Posteriormente, os mesmo aspectos foram avaliados em função do seu comportamento evolutivo em um subgrupo de 61 pacientes (média, 4,18 exames por paciente, totalizando 321 exames tomográficos). Estes pacientes tinham, pelo menos, quatro estudos tomográficos seriados (com intervalo mínimo de noventa dias entre os exames subseqüentes e pelo menos dois anos de intervalo total entre o primeiro e o último exame). As alterações tomográficas foram abordadas individual e qualitativamente segundo o critério de presença e intensidade. Inicialmente, o conjunto dos resultados foi tratado de forma individual (para cada paciente) e, depois, em relação à totalidade do grupo em questão. As calcificações foram encontradas em 46,30% dos pacientes; a atrofia, em 37,65%; as alterações da substância branca, em 25,93%; as anomalias vasculares, em 25,19%. Constatou-se uma correlação significativa entre as alterações de substância branca e a atrofia, bem como entre as calcificações e as alterações vasculares. A análise evolutiva destas características demonstrou haver um acréscimo significativo das alterações entre o momento inicial e o quarto momento no conjunto das alterações, sobretudo para as calcificações e para as alterações vasculares. Concluiu-se que as calcificações e a atrofia foram as alterações mais freqüentes nesta série de crianças e adolescentes com HIV adquirido por transmissão vertical. A atrofia e as alterações da substância branca apresentaram uma inter-relação importante na amostra descritiva, assim como as alterações vasculares e as calcificações mostraram uma associação evolutiva significativa em relação à sua progressão / We prospectively studied the behavior of calcifications, atrophy, white matter and vascular abnormalities on the images of computed tomography (CT) of 162 children and adolescents infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquired by vertical transmission, who are or were clinically followed in the Ambulatory of Pediatric Infectology of the Children Institute at the Clinics Hospital of University of São Paulo Medical School, from 1992 to 2002. We analyzed the possible correlation between these abnormalities, as well as, their evolutive aspects. For this purpose, we evaluated 606 CT scans (mean 3.74 exams per patient), which composed the group of study. After the characterization according to the presence or not of the anomalies mentioned above, and their possible inter-relations, we performed a statistical analysis of the obtained results with the Fisher test with a level of significance below 5%. Later, these aspects were evaluated regarding its evolutive behavior in a subgroup of 61 patients (mean, 4.18 exams per patient, summing 321 exams). These patients had, at least, four serial cranial CT (with minimum interval of ninety days between the subsequent exams and, at least, two years of total interval between the first and the fourth exam). The cranial CT abnormalities presented were assessed individually as absent or present. Initially, the set results were assessed individually (for each patient) and, later in relation to the totality of the group. Calcifications were found in 46.30% of all patients, atrophy in 37.65%, white matter abnormalities in 25.93% and vascular anomalies in 25.19%. We found a significant correlation between white matter abnormalities and atrophy, as well as, between calcifications and vascular anomalies. Evolutive analysis of these characteristics demonstrated a significant increase of the abnormalities between the first and the fourth moment, with emphasis to the calcifications and vascular anomalies. We concluded that, calcifications and atrophy were the most frequent abnormalities in this series of children and adolescents with HIV acquired by vertical transmission. Atrophy and white matter abnormalities presented a significant correlation in the descriptive sample, as well as, vascular anomalies and calcifications that also demonstrated a significant evolutive association regarding its progression

In this dissertation I provide an ethnographic account of the testimony of four expert witnesses who appeared before the Commission of Inquiry on the Blood System in Canada (the Krever Inquiry) as they described the production of scientific knowledge and the role that knowledge played in the struggle to protect the blood supply from being contaminated by AIDS during the early 1980's. In doing so, I bring together the experts' testimony with contemporary documents gathered by the Commission and interviews I conducted with participants in the proceedings. Using insights drawn from the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and history, I explore what the witnesses' accounts reveal about their understandings of their professional world and its relationships with other worlds, especially that of public health policy making. The Krever Inquiry offered a valuable opportunity for carrying out such an investigation. It provided a site where science was not only used, it was talked about. The Inquiry invited those involved in the blood system in the early 1980's to reflect upon and explain the beliefs and actions which surrounded one of the worst public health disasters in Canadian history and it asked the witnesses how similar catastrophes could be avoided in the future. As a result, many of the issues addressed at the hearings reflect matters of current concern in public health and medicine. The Inquiry addressed difficult issues surrounding the nature of scientific knowledge and its application in health decision-making and policy formulation. This study, therefore, may be of interest to those dealing with the problems surrounding uncertainty and the management of public health crises. It may also be of interest to those dealing with conflicts rising out of the intersection of different worlds of experience and practice, as well as to those involved in the current initiatives to both make medical and public health institutions more proactive, and inclusive, and public health decision-making more transparent. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate