Sepse é uma resposta inflamatória inapropriada desencadeada pela presença de bactérias e/ou produtos bacterianos como lipopolissacarídeos (LPS). A sepse grave e o choque séptico estão associados a taxas de mortalidade de 40 a 60%. A falência respiratória está entre as mais frequentes complicações da sepse grave, ocorrendo em quase 80% dos casos. Cerca de 40% dos pacientes com sepse desenvolvem a síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA), caracterizada principalmente pela alteração da função respiratória, surgimento de edema intersticial pulmonar e deposição de colágeno nos pulmões. Embora a reposição volêmica seja normalmente utilizada em pacientes sépticos, não há consenso quanto ao volume a ser administrado, sendo atualmente recomendada a utilização de pequenos volumes. Neste contexto, a solução salina hipertônica (NaCl 7,5%, SH) tem sido apresentada como um potencial agente terapêutico. Visando contribuir para o conhecimento dos benefícios da solução salina hipertônica (SH) na sepse, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a ação do tratamento precoce e tardio com solução hipertônica no pulmão de ratos endotoxêmicos. Ratos Wistar foram separados em 4 grupos (n=10): CTL (sem nenhum insulto ou tratamento); LPS (injetados com LPS 10mg/Kg i.p); HIPER (animais que receberam tratamento com solução hipertônica 7,5% NaCl i.p na dose de 4ml/Kg 15 min. ou 1,5 horas após injeção de LPS) e SALINA ((animais que receberam tratamento com solução salina 0,9% NaCl i.p na dose de 34ml/Kg 15 min. ou 1,5 horas após injeção de LPS). Foram avaliados a mortalidade, e após 24 horas o edema e a mecânica pulmonar, os colágenos tipo I e tipo III, a expressão e atividade da MMP-9, a expressão de FAK e a síntese de óxido nítrico (NO). Nossos resultados mostraram que o tratamento precoce com solução hipertônica evitou a morte dos animais endotoxêmicos. Nenhum dos tratamentos modulou os mediadores inflamatórios. O tratamento precoce com solução hipertônica diminuiu a síntese de iNOS e nitrito, a expressão e atividade de MMP-9 e de FAK, junto com a deposição de colágeno tipo I evitando a substituição do colágeno III. Observamos melhora dos parâmetros de mecânica respiratória. O tratamento tardio com solução hipertônica não apresentou os mesmos resultados promissores observados no tratamento precoce, sugerindo que o tempo de administração da hipertônica é de grande importância para obtenção de seus efeitos terapêuticos / Sepsis syndrome is caused by inappropriate immune activation due to bacteria and bacterial components released during infection. The respiratory failure is among the most frequent complication of severe sepsis, occurring in almost 80% of the cases. About 40% of septic patients develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) which is characterized mainly by the change of respiratory function, interstitial lung edema and fibronectin and collagen deposition in the lung. Fluid resuscitation is normally used in the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Hypertonic saline solution (HS, NaCl 7,5%) has shown to modulates immune function and decrease pulmonary injury triggered by endotoxemic shock. Our objective was to investigate the effects of early and later HS treatment on the mechanism involved in pulmonary injury, in an experimental model of endotoxemic shock. Wistar rats received lipopolysaccharide - LPS (10mg/kg i.p.) and volume i.v. after 15 minutes (early) or 1,5 hours (later). The animals were assigned in four groups (n=10): control group (not subjected to LPS); LPS group (injected with LPS 10mg/kg i.p); HS group (treated with hypertonic saline, 4 mL/Kg i.v. after LPS) and NS group (treated with normal saline, 34 mL/kg i.v. after LPS). We evaluated mortality and at 24h after treatment, pulmonary edema and mechanics, type I and type III collagen expression, metalloproteinase 9 expression and activity, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and nitric oxide (NO) synthesis were measured. In the early treatment NS increased pulmonary resistance and elastance, compared to other groups. HS inhibited collagen expression compared to LPS and NS groups and prevented pulmonary injury by decreasing MMP-9 activity in tissue. Expression of FAK was decreased in HS groups compared to LPS and NS groups. NO expression was decreased in HS group, compared to LPS and NS groups. The later treatment with HS did not showed improvement of previous parameters increasing mortality and pulmonary injury. We concluded that HS treatment of endotoxemic shock at the earliest possible time point maximizes its efficacy in preventing pulmonary injury probably acting on nitric oxide-induced FAK activation pathway, which could modulate the collagen deposition in pulmonary tissue, and consequently decrease the progression of pulmonary fibrosis. Later treatment with HS decreased beneficial effects of hypertonic saline observed in early infusion, showed the importance of timing in the result of fluid therapy

Na sepse, o mecanismo desencadeador de morte é a disfunção múltipla de órgãos e sistemas. Com isso a microcirculação é considerada o motor na patogênese da sepse. A perfusão microcirculatória representa um dos principais objetivos para melhorar as taxas de sobrevida. Uma vez reconhecida a síndrome séptica, o protocolo clínico estabelece o uso de fluidoterapia com salina, de forma vigorosa na primeira hora e seguida de suporte inotrópico com Dobutamina. A partir daí foi levantada a hipótese das drogas &#946;-agonistas serem relevantes na recuperação da microcirculação, antes mesmo de seu conhecido papel na recuperação do choque cardiogênico. Assim, estudar o papel da Dobutamina, um &#946;-agonista, na resposta adrenérgica em situação de sepse se faz necessário e urgente e o entendimento de sua ação, associada à reposição volêmica, foi objeto deste estudo. Foram usados no presente estudo, 78 hamsters, induzida a endotoxemia com LPS (2mg/kg/de massa de peso corporal) e divididos em 9 grupos: controle (n=10), endotóxico(n=10), endotóxico tratados com Dobutamina na dose de 5 e 15 &#956;g /kg/min (n=10), Isoproterenol(n=10), ressuscitação volêmica (n=10) e ressuscitação volêmica associada à Dobutamina 5 (n=10) e 15 &#956;g/kg/min (n=4) e Isoproterenol (n=4). Foram comparados os resultados de recuperação da densidade capilar funcional ao longo do tempo entre os grupos, e obteve-se resultado estatisticamente significativo no grupo em que se usa Dobutamina de 5&#956;g/kg/min associada à ressuscitação volêmica p< 0,05. Em conclusão este estudo mostra que o papel da ressuscitação volêmica é crucial na resposta da microcirculação para melhorar a densidade capilar funcional, que a velocidade da hemácia capilar tem relação direta com a melhora na perfusão tecidual e que a associação de recuperação volêmica com solução salina e Dobutamina na dose de 5 &#956;g /kg /min melhora significativamente sua resposta e melhora a perfusão. / During sepsis the mechanism responsible for death is multiple dysfunctions of organs and systems and therefore the microcirculation is considered the motor in the pathogenesis of sepsis and microcirculatory perfusion represents one of the main objectives to improve survival rate. Once one recognizes the septic syndrome, the clinical protocol establishes the use of fluid therapy with physiological saline, in a vigorous way, in the first hour followed by inotropic support with dobutamine. With these facts in mind, our hypothesis is that &#946;-agonist drugs are relevant for microcirculatory recuperation, even before their role was known in the recuperation of cardiogenic shock. In this way, to study the role of dobutamine, a &#946;-agonist, in the adrenergic response in sepsis is needed and urgent. The understanding of its action associated to volume resuscitation was the aim of our study. Seventy-eight male hamsters were used in our study, endotoxemia being induced with LPS (2 mg/kg body weight), divided in 9 groups: control (n=10), endotoxic (n=10), endotoxic treated with dobutamine in the concentrations of 5 and 15 &#956;g/kg/min (n=10, each), isoproterenol (n=10), volume resuscitation associated to dobutamine 5 &#956;g/kg/min (n=10), 15 &#956;g/kg/min (n=4), isoproterenol (n=4) or not (n=10). The microcirculation was observed in the dorsal window chamber and the results compared the recuperation of function capillary density with time and the group treated with dobutamine 5 &#956;g/kg/min associated to volume resuscitation showed a statistically significant improvement (p<0.05) of it. In conclusion, this study has shown that volume resuscitation plays a crucial role in the microcirculatory response in terms of improvement of functional capillary density, the velocity of red blood cells in the capillary has a direct relationship with the improvement of tissue perfusion and the association of volume resuscitation with physiological saline and dobutamine 5 &#956;g/kg/min elicits a significant amelioration of perfusion.

Οι ασθενείς µε αποφρακτικό ίκτερο, ιδιαίτερα όταν εκτίθενται στο επιπρόσθετο stress ενός επεµβατικού διαγνωστικού ή θεραπευτικού χειρισµού, είναι επιρρεπείς στην ανάπτυξη σηπτικών επιπλοκών και νεφρικής δυσλειτουργίας που οδηγούν σε υψηλά ποσοστά νοσηρότητας και θνητότητας. Πειραµατικές και κλινικές µελέτες έχουν δείξει ότι ο αποφρακτικός ίκτερος προκαλεί δυσλειτουργία του βλεννογόνιου εντερικού φραγµού, οδηγώντας σε ενδοτοξιναιµία, η οποία φαίνεται να διαδραµατίζει κεντρικό ρόλο στην ανάπτυξη των επιπλοκών αυτών. Η απουσία χολής µεταβάλλει τη λειτουργία του εντερικού φραγµού χωρίς να διασπά τη συνέχεια του επιθηλίου. Οι µοριακοί µηχανισµοί που ενέχονται στο φαινόµενο αυτό δεν έχουν αποσαφηνιστεί. Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή επιχειρεί να διερευνήσει την επίδραση του πειραµατικού αποφρακτικού ικτέρου στην έκφραση της αποφραξίνης, δοµικού συστατικού των αποφρακτικών ενώσεων, στον εντερικό βλεννογόνο, στην απόπτωση και στον πολλαπλασιασµό των επιθηλιακών κυττάρων στις κρύπτες και στα επίπεδα οξειδωτικού stress στο έντερο. Επιπλέον, σε µια προσπάθεια θεραπευτικής παρέµβασης, διερευνήθηκε ο πιθανός ρόλος των ρυθµιστικών εντερικών πεπτιδίων bombesin (BBS) και neurotensin (NT) στις ανωτέρω παραµέτρους, καθώς και στην ιστολογία και στα επίπεδα οξειδωτικού stress στο ήπαρ. Προηγούµενες µελέτες έχουν δείξει ότι τα πεπτίδια αυτά εξασκούν ένα ευρύ φάσµα δράσεων στον εντερο-ηπατικό άξονα και βελτιώνουν την ακεραιότητα του γαστρεντερικού βλεννογόνου έπειτα από την επίδραση διαφόρων βλαπτικών παραγόντων. Η απουσία χολής ενδοαυλικά, αποστερεί τον εντερικό βλεννογόνο από τις βακτηριοστατικές, αντι-ενδοτοξινικές και τροφικές της ιδιότητες, οδηγώντας σε αύξηση των βακτηριδίων και της ενδοτοξίνης ενδοαυλικά και σε εντερική ατροφία. Οι µεταβολές αυτές προάγουν τη µετακίνηση βακτηρίων και ενδοτοξινών στην πυλαία φλέβα και ακολούθως, µέσω µιας κατασταλµένης εκκαθαριστικής ικανότητας των κυττάρων Kupffer εξαιτίας της χολόστασης, στη συστηµατική κυκλοφορία. Η συστηµατική ενδοτοξιναιµία ενεργοποιεί τη συστηµατική φλεγµονώδη απάντηση, η οποία σχετίζεται µε τη δυσλειτουργία που αναπτύσσεται σε αποµακρυσµένα όργανα, ενώ συνεισφέρει και στην περαιτέρω επιδείνωση της λειτουργίας του εντερικού φραγµού και της ηπατικής βλάβης. Τα αποτελέσµατα της παρούσας µελέτης επιβεβαίωσαν την παρουσία πυλαίας και συστηµατικής ενδοτοξιναιµίας σε εξωηπατική απόφραξη των χοληφόρων. Η προκαλούµενη από τον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο ατροφία του εντερικού βλεννογόνου τεκµηριώθηκε µε µορφοµετρική ανάλυση και µε µετρήσεις του DNA και της πρωτεΐνης. Ένας πιθανός µηχανισµός προαγωγής της ατροφίας του εντερικού βλεννογόνου είναι η διαταραχή της ισορροπίας µεταξύ κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασµού και κυτταρικού θανάτου στις κρύπτες, µε αύξηση της απόπτωσης και µείωση της µιτωτικής δραστηριότητας. Επίσης, ο αποφρακτικός ίκτερος οδήγησε σε αύξηση του οξειδωτικού stress στο έντερο, όπως τεκµηριώνεται από την αύξηση της υπεροξείδωσης των λιπιδίων, της οξείδωσης των πρωτεϊνών, της οξειδωµένης γλουταθειόνης (GSSG), των ολικών µη πρωτεϊνικών µεικτών δισουλφιδίων (NPSSR), και των πρωτεϊνικών δισουλφιδίων (PSSP), ενώ µειώθηκε το αντιοξειδωτικό µόριο της ανηγµένης γλουταθειόνης (GSH). Η ενδοτοξιναιµία και οι αυξηµένες συγκεντρώσεις χολικών αλάτων αποτελούν σηµαντικούς διεγέρτες της παραγωγής δραστικών µεταβολιτών οξυγόνου. Η παρουσία οξειδωτικού stress στο έντερο συνεισφέρει στην προαγωγή της αποπτωτικής διεργασίας και στην αναστολή του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασµού στις κρύπτες, οδηγώντας σε ατροφία του βλεννογόνου. Ένα άλλο πρωτότυπο εύρηµα αυτής της µελέτης είναι η διαταραχή του παρακυττάριου φραγµού του εντέρου στα πειραµατόζωα µε αποφρακτικό ίκτερο, η οποία τεκµηριώνεται µε την απώλεια της έκφρασης της αποφραξίνης περίπου στο 50% των επιθηλιακών κυττάρων στο κορυφαίο τµήµα της λάχνης. Συνεπώς, το άνοιγµα της παρακυττάριας οδού φαίνεται να είναι ένας σηµαντικός παράγων στη διαφυγή ενδοτοξίνης από τον εντερικό αυλό στην πυλαία κυκλοφορία. Η ενδοτοξιναιµία, η απελευθέρωση στη συστηµατική κυκλοφορία µεσολαβητών φλεγµονής και η παρουσία οξειδωτικού stress στο έντερο πιθανώς σχετίζονται µε τη µεταβολή της έκφρασης της αποφραξίνης στον εντερικό βλεννογόνο. Επιπλέον, στον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο ανεβρέθηκε µια διαβάθµιση της έκφρασης της αποφραξίνης κατά µήκος της λάχνης, µε µεγαλύτερη απώλεια της έκφρασής της στο άνω τριτηµόριο, µικρότερη στο µέσο και ακόµα µικρότερη στην κρύπτη. Μια πιθανή εξήγηση αυτής της διαβάθµισης της απώλειας της έκφρασης της αποφραξίνης είναι ότι, δεδοµένου ότι η ανανέωση του επιθηλίου γίνεται από την κρύπτη προς την κορυφή, τα κύτταρα της κορυφής της λάχνης έχουν εκτεθεί για περισσότερο χρονικό διάστηµα στις συνθήκες οξειδωτικού stress που επικρατούν στο έντερο. Τα ρυθµιστικά εντερικά πεπτίδια, BBS και ΝΤ, δρώντας είτε άµεσα, µέσω ειδικών υποδοχέων των επιθηλιακών κυττάρων του εντέρου, είτε έµµεσα, βελτιώνοντας τη µικροκυκλοφορία του εντέρου, αποκατέστησαν την έκφραση της αποφραξίνης στον εντερικό βλεννογόνο, µείωσαν σηµαντικά την απόπτωση και το οξειδωτικό stress και ανέστρεψαν την εντερική ατροφία. Η πρόληψη, από τα ρυθµιστικά πεπτίδια, των επαγόµενων από τον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο κυτταρικών και βιοχηµικών µεταβολών του εντερικού βλεννογόνου, οδήγησε σε σηµαντική µείωση της πυλαίας και συστηµατικής ενδοτοξιναιµίας. Επιπλέον, η BBS και η ΝΤ, εξασκώντας αντιοξειδωτική δράση και στο ήπαρ, προστατεύουν από δυο µείζονες παράγοντες ηπατικής βλάβης κατά τη χολόσταση, που είναι το οξειδωτικό stress και η ενδοτοξιναιµία, οδηγώντας σε βελτίωση των ιστολογικών αλλοιώσεων της αποφρακτικής χολαγγειοπάθειας. Συµπερασµατικά, τα αποτελέσµατα της παρούσας µελέτης δείχνουν ότι η δυσλειτουργία του εντερικού φραγµού στον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο σχετίζεται µε την επαγωγή κυτταρικών και βιοχηµικών µεταβολών στον εντερικό βλεννογόνο, οι οποίες χαρακτηρίζονται από κατά τόπους απώλεια της έκφρασης της αποφραξίνης, πρόκληση οξειδωτικού stress και επαγωγή της απόπτωσης. Τα ρυθµιστικά εντερικά πεπτίδια BBS και ΝΤ προλαµβάνοντας τις µεταβολές αυτές του εντερικού βλεννογόνου µειώνουν σηµαντικά την πυλαία και συστηµατική ενδοτοξιναιµία. Επίσης, εξασκούν προστατευτική δράση εναντίον του οξειδωτικού stress στο ήπαρ και διαφυλάσσουν την αρχιτεκτονική του πυλαίου διαστήµατος. Η συνδυασµένη ευεργετική επίδραση των ρυθµιστικών πεπτιδίων, τόσο στη δυσλειτουργία του εντερικού φραγµού και την ενδοτοξιναιµία, που ευθύνονται για την ανάπτυξη σηπτικών επιπλοκών και βλάβης αποµακρυσµένων οργάνων, όσο και στο οξειδωτικό stress και την ιστολογία του ήπατος, εισηγούνται µια νέα θεραπευτική προσέγγιση στον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο. Όπωσδήποτε απαιτούνται περαιτέρω µελέτες για τη διευκρίνιση των µηχανισµών δράσης και πιθανών παρενεργειών της BBS και της ΝΤ πριν την εφαρµογή τους στην κλινική πράξη. / Patients with obstructive jaundice, especially when exposed to the additional stress of an invasive diagnostic or therapeutic procedure, are prone to septic complications and renal dysfunction contributing to high morbidity and mortality rates. Experimental and clinical studies have shown that obstructive jaundice compromises intestinal barrier function resulting in endotoxemia, which appears to play a key role in the development of these complications. Lack of bile alters intestinal epithelial barrier function without disrupting epithelial continuity. The molecular mechanisms implicated in this phenomenon are poorly understood. This study was undertaken to investigate the influence of experimental obstructive jaundice on the expression of the key tight junction-associated protein occludin in the intestinal epithelium, epithelial cell apoptosis and proliferation in crypts and intestinal oxidative stress. In addition, in an attempt for therapeutic intervention in obstructive jaundice, we have explored the potential positive effect of gut regulatory peptides bombesin (BBS) and neurotensin (NT) on the above-described parameters and on liver histology and oxidative stress. These factors exert a wide spectrum of actions on the gut-liver axis and they improve gastrointestinal mucosa integrity after various injurious insults. The results of our study showed that experimental obstructive jaundice results in portal and aortic endotoxaemia. In jaundiced rats, there was total loss of occludin expression in numerous enterocytes and this effect was most profound at the upper third of the villi, while a gradient of positivity existed from crypt to tip. Intestinal cell apoptosis in crypts was significantly increased, while mitotic activity was reduced. This imbalance of cell proliferation and death in crypts was accompanied by induction of mucosal atrophy, as evidenced by morphometrical analysis and decreased DNA and protein content. Moreover, obstructive jaundice induced intestinal oxidative stress demonstrated by increased lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, GSSG, NPSSR, PSSP and reduction of GSH. Administration of BBS or NT significantly reduced portal and systemic endotoxaemia. These agents restored occludin expression in the intestinal epithelium to the control state, significantly reduced apoptosis and oxidative stress and reversed mucosal atrophy. Moreover, both agents significantly ameliorated liver injury, as demonstrated by improvement of obstructive cholangiopathy, reduction of hepatic oxidative stress and prevention of neutrophilic accumulation in portal tracts. Absence of intraluminal bile deprives the gut from its bacteriostatic, endotoxin-neutralizing and mucosal-trophic effect leading to increased intestinal bacterial and endotoxin load and mucosal atrophy. These alterations promote bacterial and endotoxin translocation into portal circulation and subsequently, through a decreased clearance capacity of Kupffer cells because of cholestasis, into systemic circulation. Systemic endotoxemia activates a systemic inflammatory response, which is associated with dysfunction of remote organs, while it further aggravates intestinal barrier dysfunction and cholestatic liver injury. Endotoxin and bile acids represent important sources of reactive oxygen species formation. We have demonstrated increased intestinal oxidative stress in obstructive jaundice, which possibly contributes to induction of apoptosis and inhibition of cell proliferation in intestinal crypts, leading to mucosal atrophy. Another novel finding of this study is that the intestinal paracellular barrier in jaundiced rats is disrupted, as evidenced by loss of expression of the key tight junction-associated protein occludin in approximately 50% of enterocytes at the upper third of the villi. Therefore, the opened paracellular route may significantly contribute to the escape of endotoxin from the intestinal lumen into portal circulation. Endotoxemia, systemic release of inflammatory mediators and intestinal oxidative stress are possibly associated with decreased occludin expression. A possible explanation for the gradient of occludin expression from crypt to tip is that the cells at the tip of the villi have been exposed for a longer duration to the oxidative intestinal environment of jaundiced rats since epithelial renewal takes place from crypt to tip. Gut regulatory peptides, BBS and NT, acting either directly, through specific receptors located in intestinal epithelial cells, or indirectly, through improvement of intestinal microcirculation, prevent the above-described cellular and biochemical alterations of the intestinal mucosa, leading to lower portal and systemic endotoxin concentrations. Moreover, exerting an antioxidant effect on the liver as well, they prevent two major factors in the promotion of cholestatic liver injury, oxidative stress and endotoxemia, leading to significant amelioration of obstructive cholangiopathy. In conclusion, the results of the present study show that obstructive jaundice-induced gut barrier dysfunction is associated with regional loss of occludin expression in the intestinal epithelium, increased intestinal oxidative stress and induction of apoptosis / inhibition of proliferation in crypts leading to intestinal atrophy. Gut regulatory peptides BBS and NT exerting beneficial effects on these cellular and biochemical alterations of the intestinal mucosa prevent portal and systemic endotoxaemia. Moreover, these factors exert a protective action on portal tract architecture and hepatic oxidative stress. The combined beneficial effects of regulatory peptides on intestinal barrier dysfunction and endotoxemia, which account for septic complications and dysfunction of remote organs, and on liver oxidative status and histology, provide a novel therapeutic approach for obstructive jaundice. However, further investigation to elucidate the details of the functional mechanisms and possible side effects of BBS and NT are needed before any clinical application.

Véritable enjeu de santé publique, l’obésité et ses complications seraient la conséquence d’un état inflammatoire chronique de bas-grade qui pourrait résulter de la présence dans le sang de composés bactériens, les lipopolysaccharides (LPS), état appelé endotoxémie métabolique. Le premier objectif de cette thèse était de comprendre pourquoi les LPS, initialement contenus dans le microbiote, sont capables de traverser l’intestin et d’entrer dans le système sanguin. Mon second objectif était d’étudier l’impact de la composition du microbiote dans le contrôle de la satiété par le nerf vague, lien de communication entre l’intestin et le cerveau. Pour cela, un modèle de rats soumis à un régime obésogène a été utilisée.Mes travaux ont montré que la consommation d’un régime obésogène induisait une perte de la fonction de barrière intestinale au niveau de l’iléon caractérisée par une baisse des défenses mucosales et une augmentation de la perméabilité au LPS. L’obésité est également caractérisée par une altération du comportement alimentaire, avec notamment une réduction de la sensibilité aux signaux de satiété. Nous avons montré que ni l’obésité ni le pourcentage de lipides du régime n’étaient responsables de cette perte de sensibilité aux signaux de satiété mais que l’altération du microbiote en serait le contributeur principal. Ainsi, l’endotoxémie métabolique serait le résultat d’une augmentation du passage transepithelial de LPS, qui, une fois dans le sang, pourraient atteindre, entre autres, le nerf vague où ils perturberaient les signaux intestinaux de satiété. / A real public health issue, obesity and its associated metabolic and behavioral disorders are the consequences of a state of low grade chronic inflammation that might originate from the presence in host plasma of gut-derived bacteria components, lipopolysaccharides (LPS). This present state is called metabolic endotoxemia. The first aim of my thesis was to understand why, in diet-induced obesity (DIO), LPS initially contained in the gut lumen, are able to cross the intestine and enter into the circulatory system. My second aim was to investigate the effect of gut microbiota composition and LPS on the satiety regulation by the vagus nerve, the main communication pathway between the gut and the brain. To answer these questions, we have mainly used a DIO rat model.We showed that consumption of WD induced a loss of ileal barrier function characterized by a reduction in mucosal defenses associated to elevated LPS permeability. Obesity is also characterized by an alteration in feeding behavior including a decreased sensitivity to intestinal satiety signals. We showed that neither obesity nor the lipid percentage of the diet triggers loss of sensitivity to satiety signals but that gut microbiota alterations could rather be the main driver. Hence, metabolic endotoxemia could result from an increased transepithelial passage of LPS, which once spread in the blood could reach, among other things, the vagus nerve where they could disrupt intestinal signals of satiety.

L’hypertriglycéridémie post prandiale constitue un facteur de risque des maladies cardiovasculaires et est présente en cas de syndrome métabolique, d’obésité et d’insulino-résistance. L’intestin conditionne la biodisponibilité des lipides et l’hypertriglycéridémie post prandiale. En effet, il contrôle la quantité et la qualité des chylomicrons sécrétés, en adaptant son métabolisme en fonction de la teneur en lipides du régime. Or à l’heure actuelle, le mécanisme de détection des lipides alimentaires par les entérocytes nécessaire à cette adaptation, n’est pas élucidé. Ce travail de thèse a permis de démontrer que la glycoprotéine transmembranaire CD36, est un récepteur aux AGLC qui déclenche l’activation des ERK1/2. Cette activation est responsable de l’induction du taux d’ARNm de 3 protéines clés de l’absorption des lipides (l’Apobec1, la Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein (MTP), la Liver-Fatty Acid Binding Protein (L-FABP)) et de la dégradation post prandiale de CD36. La pertinence physiologique de ce récepteur a été évaluée chez des souris CD36 (-/-) soumises à un régime hyperlipidique riche en AGLC saturés ou insaturés. Nos données démontrent que CD36 intestinal est indispensable à l’absorption de forte quantité de lipides, au contrôle de l’hypertriglycéridémie post prandiale, de l’inflammation intestinale et de l’endotoxémie. Ces effets sont fortement aggravés en cas de régime hyperlipidique riche en AGLC insaturés qui peuvent même être léthal. Le CD36 intestinal pourrait donc être une cible thérapeutique dans le traitement de l’hypertriglycéridémie et de l’endotoxémie post prandiales. / Post prandial hypertriglyceridemia represents a risk factor for cardio-vascular diseases and it is associated with metabolic syndrom, obesity, and insulino-resistance. The intestine influences lipid bioavailibility and post prandial hypertriglyceridemia. It controls the quantity and the quality of secreted chylomicrons by adapting its metabolism according to the lipid content of the diet. Nevertheless, the mechanism of dietary lipid detection by the enterocyte is not understood. Our work demonstrates that the transmembrane glycoprotein CD36 is a Long Chain Fatty Acid (LCFA) receptor which triggers ERK1/2 activation. This activation is responsible for the induction of mRNA rate of 3 key proteins of lipid absorption (Apobec1, Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein (MTP), Liver-Fatty Acid Binding Protein (L-FABP)) and for CD36 degradation. The physiological relevance of this receptor has been assessed in CD36 (-/-) mice fed with a High Fat Diet (HFD) rich in saturated or unsaturated LCFA. Our data demontstrates that CD36 is crucial for the absorption of an important quantity of lipids, to the control of hypertriglyceridemia, of intestinal inflammation and of endotoxemia. These effects are getting worse in the case of HFD rich in unsaturated LCFA, which can be lethal. Intestinal CD36 could represent a therapeutic target in the treatment of post prandial hypertriglyceridemia and endotoxemia.

Background: Prior studies show that sickness induces anxiety as rated by subjective reports but have not linked this to overt behavior in humans. This study investigates the expression of distress during experimental sickness, its relation to self-reported anxiety, and the moderating role of gender in the association between overt distress and self-rated anxiety. Methods: 21 participants (18-34 yrs, 10 women) were semi-randomly chosen from a placebo-controlled, double-blind, within-subject experiment, in which participants were intravenously injected with a bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.8 ng/kg body weight) triggering a transient inflammatory reaction and an acute state of sickness. In the current study, we coded the participants’ expression of moans, sighs and deep breaths (overt distress) during sickness from the video recordings of the experiment and analyzed these parameters in relation to the state part of the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger et al., 1979) that was collected during the experiment. Results: The frequency of overt distress increased strongly during experimental sickness (1-3h post-injection of LPS) compared to baseline. The level of overt distress was not related to subjective feelings of anxiety. No clear difference was found between men and women in the frequency of expressed distress during sickness. Interestingly however, there was an inverted relation between anxiety and the expression of distress in women, so that women who reported higher anxiety expressed less distress overtly (ß = -0.52, p = 0.018). Conclusions: Experimental sickness strongly induces an increase of moans, sighs and deep breaths, but these are not directly associated with the level of state anxiety reported. The results also suggest that moans, sighs and deep breaths might have a different function in men and women.

L’obésité est définie comme un surplus de masse adipeuse. Cette condition représente un problème de santé publique devenu pandémique dans les pays industrialisés. Elle prédispose à des maladies potentiellement mortelles comme le diabète de type 2, les maladies cardiovasculaires et la stéatose hépatique non-alcoolique. L’accumulation du tissu adipeux intra-abdominal, formé d’adipocytes, est corrélée avec la résistance à l’insuline. L’augmentation de la masse adipeuse se fait par l’hyperplasie des préadipocytes, la différenciation des préadipocytes en adipocytes et l’hypertrophie des adipocytes. La différenciation des préadipocytes se fait selon l’adipogenèse qui est régulée par une multitude de facteurs, mais qui est inhibée pas les stimuli inflammatoires qui sont aussi responsables de la résistance à l’insuline et de l’apparition des problèmes de santé liés à l’obésité. Nous avons identifié un nouveau système de régulation autocrine/paracrine de l’adipogenèse dans les cellules du tissu adipeux. Le pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptide (QRFP), qui était connu pour son rôle dans la régulation de l’appétit, est un activateur de l’adipogenèse par l’activation de son récepteur, le G protein-coupled receptor 103 (GPR103). Le QRFP est exprimé dans les macrophages et les adipocytes alors que le GPR103 de sous-type b est exprimé dans les adipocytes seulement. Un traitement des adipocytes avec le QRFP augmente le captage des acides gras, l’accumulation de lipides ainsi que l’expression et l’activité de l’enzyme LPL. Le QRFP augmente aussi l’expression des gènes des transporteurs d’acides gras CD36 et FATP1, de l’enzyme activatrice d’acides gras ACSL1 et des facteurs de transcription PPAR-γ et C/EBP-α, qui sont tous impliqués dans l’adipogenèse. En plus de ses effets sur l’adipogenèse, le QRFP possède aussi un effet inhibiteur sur l’activité lipolytique induite par les catécholamines. Nous avons montré que l’expression du QRFP est diminuée dans le tissu adipeux des souris obèses. Selon nos résultats, cette diminution pourrait être expliquée par une augmentation des endotoxines circulantes chez les obèses, appelée endotoxémie métabolique, qui agirait, entre autres, par l’induction des interférons dans les macrophages. Les voies de signalisation de ces effets ont aussi été identifiées. Nous avons montré un autre exemple de stimulus inflammatoire qui régule les signaux adipogènes à la baisse. / Obesity is defined as an excess of fat tissue mass. Obesity is a public health problem which became pandemic in developed countries. The condition of obesity predisposes to potentially fatal diseases like type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. The increase in intra-abdominal adipose tissue mass is intimately associated with the development of insulin resistance. An increase in fat tissue mass occurs by preadipocytes hyperplasia, preadipocytes differentiation into adipocytes and adipocyte hypertrophy. The differentiation of preadipocytes occurs during adipogenesis and is regulated by multiple factors but inhibited by inflammatory stimuli that are responsible for insulin resistance and the emergence of obesity-related dysfunctions. We identified a new autocrine/paracrine system of regulation of adipogenesis in adipose tissue cells. The pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptide (QRFP), previously known for its role in the regulation of appetite, is an activator of adipogenesis by activating its receptor, G protein-coupled receptor 103 (GPR103). QRFP is expressed in adipocytes and macrophages whereas the GPR103 subtype b is expressed in adipocytes only. Treatment of adipocytes with QRFP increases fatty acids uptake, lipid accumulation, LPL enzyme expression and activity. QRFP upregulates gene expressions of fatty acids transporters CD36 and FATP1, of the fatty acid activating enzyme ACSL1 and of transcription factors PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α, which are all involved in adipogenesis. In addition to its effects on adipogenesis, QRFP shows an inhibitory effect on lipolytic activity induced by catecholamines. We have shown that QRFP expression is decreased in adipose tissues of obese mice. According to our results, this decrease could be explained by an increase of circulating endotoxins in obesity, called metabolic endotoxemia, which mediate its effect, in part, by the induction of interferons in macrophages. Signaling pathways of these effects have been identified. We demonstrated another example of inflammatory stimulus downregulating adipogenic signals.

Orientador: Juliana Regina Peiró / Coorientador:Sérgio Moraes Aoki / Banca:José Paes de Oliveira Filho / Banca:Flávia de Almeida Lucas / Resumo: Endotoxemia é distúrbio sistêmico que se origina da resposta do hospedeiro a um componente da membrana celular das bactérias Gram- negativas. Esta resposta se dá através da exposição dos receptores celulares TLR-4 e TLR-2 ao LPS. Os objetivos deste estudo foram investigar as alterações na expressão gênica da exposição ao LPS em leucócitos de equinos utilizando a técnica de microarray, avaliar a eficiência do modelo ex vivo para os estudos envolvendo a endotoxemia pela mesma técnica, avaliar a expressão global de genes em vias envolvidas, identificar componentes da cascata metabólica com potenciais para novas terapias, e fornecer subsídio para futuros estudos. Amostras de sangue total (15mL) de cavalos saudáveis (n=6) foram incubadas durante 4 horas a 37°C com 5% de CO2 na presença (1 ou 10 ng/mL) ou ausência de LPS (0 ng/mL). Alíquotas de 500µL de sangue foram coletadas nos momentos 0, 2 e 4 horas após o estímulo do LPS. O RNA, extraído das mostras, foi utilizado para a transcrição do cDNA. A hibridização do cDNA marcado com Cy-3 foi realizada em lâminas 4x44K v2 de humanos contendo sequências homólogas com a espécie equina para os genes de interesse. Após a leitura das lâminas, com filtro para genes 30x mais ou menos expressos, verificou-se um aumento da expressão do TLR-2 na concentração de 10 ng LPS/mL no momento 4 em relação ao momento 2. Este resultado sugere que, embora o receptor TLR-4 seja o principal receptor no reconhecimento do LPS, o receptor TLR-2 também tem um papel no reconhecimento destas moléculas / Abstract: Endotoxemia is systemic disturbance that origins from the host response to a component of the cellular membrane of Gram-negative bacterias. This response occurs through exposure of cellular receptors TLR-4 and TLR-2 to LPS. The objectives of this study were to investigate changes in gene expression of exposure to LPS in horses leukocytes using the microarray technique, to evaluate the efficiency of the ex vivo model for studies of endotoxemia by the same technique, to evaluate the global expression of genes in the metabolic pathways involved, identify components of the metabolic cascade with potential for new therapies, and provide allowance for future studies. Whole blood samples (15mL) of healthy horses (n=6) were incubated for 4 hours at 37°C with 5% of CO2 in the presence (1 or 10 ng/ml) or absence of LPS (0 ng/ml). Aliquots of 500μL of blood were collected at 0,2 and 4 hours after LPS stimulation. The RNAs, extracted from the samples, were used for the transcription of the cDNAs. Hybridization of labeled cDNAs with Cy-3 were performed in 4x44K v2 slides containing human sequences homologous to the equine species for the genes of interest. After the reading of the slides with filter for genes 30x up regulation or down regulation expression, it was observed an increased expression of the TLR-2 concentration of 10 ng LPS/mL at time 4 compared to time 2. This result suggests that, although the TLR-4 receptor is the main LPS recognition receptor, the receptor TLR-2 also plays a role in recognition of these molecules / Mestre

Les maladies rénales chroniques (MRC) et l'insuffisance rénale aiguë (IRA) sont des problèmes essentiels de santé publique en raison de l'augmentation continue de leur fréquence et du manque de solutions thérapeutiques contre ces maladies. L'acide lysophosphatidique (LPA) est un lysophospholipide bioactif qui induit un large éventail de réponses cellulaires par le biais de récepteurs membranaires spécifiques (LPA1 à LPA6) couplés aux protéines G. Dans ce travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux effets biologiques et au métabolisme du LPA dans les MRC et l'IRA. Des travaux antérieurs de l'équipe avaient montré que le LPA contribuait, via le récepteur LPA1, au développement de la fibrose tubulointerstitio (TIF) dans un modèle de MRC chez la souris : l'obstruction urétérale. Dans la première partie de la thèse nous avons étudié l'implication du LPA dans un modèle plus avancé de MRC: la néphrectomie subtotale (SNX) chez la souris. Nos travaux ont montré que 5 mois après chirurgie les souris (SNX) développaient une albuminurie massive associée à une TIF sévère et à une hypertrophie glomérulaire. Chez ces souris la concentration en LPA mesurée par chromatographie liquide en spectrométrie de masse en tandem était augmentée dans l'urine et étroitement corrélée à l'albuminurie et à la TIF. En parallèle, nous avons observé une diminution de l'expression rénale des Lipid-Phosphate Phosphatases (LPP 1, 2 et 3) responsables de l'inactivation du LPA. Nous avons également observé que l'expression rénale des récepteurs LPA1, 2, 3 et 4 était diminuée chez les souris Snx. Nous avons conclu que les effets délétères éventuels du LPA dans le développement de la MRC chez les souris SNX était vraisemblablement lié à une augmentation de sa production rénale plutôt qu'à une sensibilité accrue du rein au LPA. Des travaux antérieurs avaient montré que l'injection de LPA protégeait contre l'apparition des lésions rénales induites par ischémie/reperfusion chez la souris. Une autre étude avait montré que le LPA permettait d'atténuer l'inflammation systémique et les dommages aux organes induits par un choc septique. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous avons étudié l'influence du LPA sur l'IRA induite par une endotoxémie au LPS (lipopolysaccharide) chez la souris. Nous avons observé que l'injection de LPA permettait d'atténuer l'élévation d'urée et de créatinine plasmatiques, ainsi que l'augmentation d'expression rénale de cytokines inflammatoires (IL-6, TNFa, MCP-1) induites par le LPS. Le LPA a également empêché la baisse d'expression rénale du facteur PGC1a ainsi que les altérations ultra-structurales des mitochondries rénales induites par le LPS. In vitro, le LPA atténue l'augmentation d'expression des cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNFa et MCP-1) induite par le LPS dans les macrophages RAW264. Enfin, nos travaux ont montré que l'endotoxémie au LPS chez la souris entrainait une réduction de la concentration urinaire de LPA associée à une réduction des enzymes anaboliques LPA (autotaxine et acylglycérol kinase) et une élévation de l'expression de de LPP2, dans le cortex rénal. Nous en avons conclu que l'IRA associée à l'endotoxémie pourrait être liée, au moins en partie, à une réduction de la production rénale de LPA et, par voix de conséquence, de ses effets anti-inflammatoires protecteurs de la fonction rénale. En conclusion, notre travail montre que les variations de production rénale de LPA pourraient jouer un rôle important dans le développement des maladies rénales. L'augmentation du LPA dans les MRC favoriserait ses effets délétères (fibrose, inflammation). Sa réduction dans l'IRA réduirait ses effets anti-inflammatoires. Cibler le catabolisme LPA pourrait donc être une approche intéressante dans le traitement des maladies rénales. / Both chronic kidney diseases (CKD) with consecutive development of end stage renal disease (ESRD) and acute kidney injury (AKI) represent worrying problems for healthcare system due to its increased frequency and the lack of efficient treatments. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive lysophospholipid that elicits a wide range of cell responses (proliferation, migration, transformation, contraction etc.) through the activation of specific G protein-coupled receptors (LPA1 to LPA6). In this work we were interested in involvement of the LPA and changes in its metabolism in CKD and AKI. Previous works showed that LPA exerts pro-fibrotic activity and contributes to development of tubulointerstitioal fibrosis (TIF) after ureteral obstruction through activation of LPA1 receptors. In the first part of the thesis we were interested whether LPA signalization is involved in more advanced model of the disease. We found that 5 months after subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) mice develop massive albuminuria, TIF and glomerular hypertrophy compared to control animals. LPA concentration measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was increased in urine but not in plasma of animals. That increase in LPA significantly correlated with albuminuria and TIF. In addition we found a decreased renal expression of lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPP1, 2 and 3) that are responsible for the degradation of LPA by dephosphorylation. Moreover, the expression of LPA1-LPA4 receptors is down-regulated, whereas LPA5 and LPA6 are unchanged. We concluded here that the possible deleterious effect of LPA in the development of CKD in SNX mice was likely related to its increased production rather than an increased sensitivity of the kidney to LPA. Since LPA was reported previously to protect kidney damage in the course of ischemia/reperfusion injury, and that it was able to mitigate the systemic inflammation and organ damage in sepsis, we were interested in second part of the thesis to determine whether exogenous and/or endogenous LPA might protect against sepsis-associated AKI. C57BL/6 mice were treated with exogenous LPA 18:1 1 hour before being injected with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and AKI was analyzed after 24h. LPA pre-treatment significantly mitigated the LPS-induced elevation of plasma urea and creatinine, lessened the up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNFa, MCP-1) and completely prevented the down-regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1a) in kidney. LPA also prevented LPS-mediated alterations of renal mitochondria ultrastructure. In vitro, pre-treatment with LPA 18:1 (10 µM) significantly attenuated LPS-induced up-regulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFa and MCP-1) in RAW264 macrophages. In addition we found that LPS led to the reduction of urinary LPA concentration that was associated with a reduction in LPA anabolic enzymes (autotaxin and acylglycerol kinase), and an elevation in LPA catabolic enzyme (lipid phosphate phosphatase 2) expression in kidney cortex. We concluded hereby that exogenous LPA exerts protection against endotoxemia-induced kidney injury. Moreover, the observation that LPS reduces the renal production of LPA suggests that sepsis-associated AKI could be mediated, at least in part, by alleviation of the protective action of endogenous LPA. In general our work shows that LPA local metabolism is altered in both forms of kidney diseases. In course of sepsis-induced AKI LPS leads to increased local catabolism of LPA leading to low availability of the phospholipid and alleviating its protective effect whereas in advanced CKD the local catabolism of the phospholipid is decreased with subsequent increase of urine LPA that favors development of the disease. Targeting LPA catabolism can be an interesting approach in treatment of kidney diseases.

L’obésité est définie comme un surplus de masse adipeuse. Cette condition représente un problème de santé publique devenu pandémique dans les pays industrialisés. Elle prédispose à des maladies potentiellement mortelles comme le diabète de type 2, les maladies cardiovasculaires et la stéatose hépatique non-alcoolique. L’accumulation du tissu adipeux intra-abdominal, formé d’adipocytes, est corrélée avec la résistance à l’insuline. L’augmentation de la masse adipeuse se fait par l’hyperplasie des préadipocytes, la différenciation des préadipocytes en adipocytes et l’hypertrophie des adipocytes. La différenciation des préadipocytes se fait selon l’adipogenèse qui est régulée par une multitude de facteurs, mais qui est inhibée pas les stimuli inflammatoires qui sont aussi responsables de la résistance à l’insuline et de l’apparition des problèmes de santé liés à l’obésité. Nous avons identifié un nouveau système de régulation autocrine/paracrine de l’adipogenèse dans les cellules du tissu adipeux. Le pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptide (QRFP), qui était connu pour son rôle dans la régulation de l’appétit, est un activateur de l’adipogenèse par l’activation de son récepteur, le G protein-coupled receptor 103 (GPR103). Le QRFP est exprimé dans les macrophages et les adipocytes alors que le GPR103 de sous-type b est exprimé dans les adipocytes seulement. Un traitement des adipocytes avec le QRFP augmente le captage des acides gras, l’accumulation de lipides ainsi que l’expression et l’activité de l’enzyme LPL. Le QRFP augmente aussi l’expression des gènes des transporteurs d’acides gras CD36 et FATP1, de l’enzyme activatrice d’acides gras ACSL1 et des facteurs de transcription PPAR-γ et C/EBP-α, qui sont tous impliqués dans l’adipogenèse. En plus de ses effets sur l’adipogenèse, le QRFP possède aussi un effet inhibiteur sur l’activité lipolytique induite par les catécholamines. Nous avons montré que l’expression du QRFP est diminuée dans le tissu adipeux des souris obèses. Selon nos résultats, cette diminution pourrait être expliquée par une augmentation des endotoxines circulantes chez les obèses, appelée endotoxémie métabolique, qui agirait, entre autres, par l’induction des interférons dans les macrophages. Les voies de signalisation de ces effets ont aussi été identifiées. Nous avons montré un autre exemple de stimulus inflammatoire qui régule les signaux adipogènes à la baisse. / Obesity is defined as an excess of fat tissue mass. Obesity is a public health problem which became pandemic in developed countries. The condition of obesity predisposes to potentially fatal diseases like type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. The increase in intra-abdominal adipose tissue mass is intimately associated with the development of insulin resistance. An increase in fat tissue mass occurs by preadipocytes hyperplasia, preadipocytes differentiation into adipocytes and adipocyte hypertrophy. The differentiation of preadipocytes occurs during adipogenesis and is regulated by multiple factors but inhibited by inflammatory stimuli that are responsible for insulin resistance and the emergence of obesity-related dysfunctions. We identified a new autocrine/paracrine system of regulation of adipogenesis in adipose tissue cells. The pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptide (QRFP), previously known for its role in the regulation of appetite, is an activator of adipogenesis by activating its receptor, G protein-coupled receptor 103 (GPR103). QRFP is expressed in adipocytes and macrophages whereas the GPR103 subtype b is expressed in adipocytes only. Treatment of adipocytes with QRFP increases fatty acids uptake, lipid accumulation, LPL enzyme expression and activity. QRFP upregulates gene expressions of fatty acids transporters CD36 and FATP1, of the fatty acid activating enzyme ACSL1 and of transcription factors PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α, which are all involved in adipogenesis. In addition to its effects on adipogenesis, QRFP shows an inhibitory effect on lipolytic activity induced by catecholamines. We have shown that QRFP expression is decreased in adipose tissues of obese mice. According to our results, this decrease could be explained by an increase of circulating endotoxins in obesity, called metabolic endotoxemia, which mediate its effect, in part, by the induction of interferons in macrophages. Signaling pathways of these effects have been identified. We demonstrated another example of inflammatory stimulus downregulating adipogenic signals.