This thesis consists of four empirical studies on women and men in European labour markets. Study I examines effects of the sex of the immediate supervisor on the time men and women spend in initial on-the-job training (OJT) in Sweden. The results show that men receive longer initial OJT than women do, but men’s time in training is independent of the supervisor’s sex. For women in the private sector, the chances of receiving long initial OJT are higher if the immediate supervisor is a man. Study II analyses effects of labour market institutions on the quality of part-time work by comparing the skills and autonomy of female part-time jobs in Britain and Sweden. The results show that female part-time employees in Sweden hold positions of higher skill and have more autonomy compared to their equivalents in Britain. Both British and Swedish part-time employees face relative disadvantages when compared to female full-time workers. Study III examines associations between maternal employment policies and wage penalties for mothers by skill in 10 European countries. The results indicate that, net of variation in female labour force participation, extensive publicly funded childcare is associated with a modest decrease in the motherhood wage penalty, regardless of skill. By contrast, paid maternity leave is weakly associated with a larger motherhood wage gap in less skilled jobs only. Study IV examines the extent to which women’s opportunities to attain positions of high workplace authority are related to maternal employment policies, such as paid parental leave and part-time work. Based on data from 25 European countries, the results show that a high proportion of women working long part-time hours is associated with a wider gender gap in the attainment of high authority positions, to the disadvantage of women. However, paid parental leave appears to be unrelated to the gender authority gap. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 2: In press. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

Within the sample of Muslim-majority countries, the links between how explicitly "Islamic" a society is, the status of women, and economic and other societal outcomes is explored. A country is considered more or less "Islamic" depending upon if Islam is the official state religion, if Islamic law forms a basis for the legal system, and the degree to which the country has rejected or maintained traditional Islamic norms such as regarding the acceptance of polygamy and the legal obligation of women to wear the veil in public. It is found that if a country is more "Islamic," it tends to also have worse outcomes along different dimensions, such as degree of authoritarianism and absence of women's rights. However, focusing exclusively on whether the country has Islamic law as a basis of the legal system, these countries tend to be richer. An extremity index is composed, which contains only variables which describe the status of women in Muslim countries, along educational and legal dimensions. It is found in regressions that this extremity index is a statistically significant predictor of economic growth, where higher extremity leads to lower GDP growth rates. Oil is still an extremely important factor in explaining the variation in GDP levels and growth rates in the Muslim world.

Viešojo sektoriaus ekonomikos magistro baigiamojo darbo tema yra aktuali, kadangi lyčių aspekto integravimas į biudžetą – viena iš aukštos ekonominės galios garantijų. Įstatymų leidyba yra nepakankama priemonė užkirsti kelią lyčių nelygybei, kuri yra stipriai įsišaknijusi mūsų visuomenėje ir kurią palaiko stereotipinis požiūris į vyrų ir moterų vaidmenis. Pagrindinė problema, kuriai skiriamas šis darbas: biudžetas – vienas svarbiausių įrankių įgyvendinant politikų priimtus sprendimus, o nuomonė, jog jis yra ir turėtų būti neutralus lytims, klaidinga ir, žiūrint iš valstybės ekonomikos augimo bei šalies gerovės perspektyvos, per brangiai kainuojanti visuomenei. Tyrimo objektas – lyčiai jautrus biudžetas, kuris gali patobulinti lyčių analizę valstybės biudžeto ir išteklių paskirstymo plotmėje. Lyčių aspekto integravimas į biudžetą – tai procesas, kurio metu nagrinėjamas valstybės biudžetas, siekiant nustatyti, ar jis įvertina skirtingus socialinius vyrų ir moterų vaidmenis, ir siūlomi pakeitimai faktinės lyčių lygybės įgyvendinimui. Darbo tikslas – įrodyti lyčių aspekto svarbą, formuojant valstybės biudžetą. Šiuo metu biudžeto skirstymas Lietuvoje neatsižvelgia į lytis, taip tik didindamas nelygybę tarp moterų ir vyrų. Numatytam darbo tikslui pasiekti keliami uždaviniai: 1. pateikti užsienio šalių ir Lietuvos analizę lyčių lygybės kontekste; 2. pagrįsti lyčiai jautraus biudžeto diegimo Lietuvoje būtinybę; 3. ištirti Lietuvos moterų itaką bendrajam vidaus produktui; 4... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The final Master‘s work topic in Public Sector Economics is relevant since gender mainstreaming in the budget – is one of guarantees of high economic power. Legislation is insufficient to prevent gender inequality, which is deeply rooted in our society and supports the stereotypical approach to men's and women's roles. The main problem in this work: budget – one of the most important tools in implementing the decisions taken by politicians, that is way the opinion that it is and should be gender-neutral is false and, from a state of economic growth and the country's welfare perspective, costs a lot to society. The research subject is gender-sensitive budget, which may improve the gender analysis of the state budget in the context of resource allocation. The integration of gender aspect in the budget is a process when the the state budget is being considered, in order to determine whether it evaluates different social roles of men and women, and modifications are being suggested in order to implement the actual gender equality. The aim of this work is to demonstrate the importance of gender aspect, when the state budget is being formed. Currently, the allotment of budget in Lithuania does not consider gender, hereby inequality between women and men increases. To achieve the higher mentioned aim the tasks are put in: 1. to lay the analysis of foreign countries and Lithuania in the context of gender equality; 2. to justify the necessity of gender-sensitive budget in Lithuania... [to full text]

Though successively decreasing over time, gender wage gaps are still large in all western countries. When gender wage gaps exist, there is an unequal distribution of economic power between men and women. This paper examines variables that significantly relate to the differences in the size of the gender wage gap across Swedish municipalities. With data gathered from Statistics Sweden and the Swedish Social Insurance Agency for the year 2011, a series of OLS regressions are performed. By examining what variables are statistically related to variations in the gender wage gap over municipalities, for example, average wage, human capital, gender segregation and work absence, the aim is to further contribute to the field of gender economics. The results in this paper show that the gender wage gap exists in all 290 Swedish municipalities. It varies greatly with women earning only 56 percent of men’s wages in Danderyd to women earning 87 percent of men’s wages in Haparanda. In municipalities where average wages are high the gender wage gap is large. Long-term illness and lowered capacity to work are strong factors negatively affecting the gender wage gap. In municipalities where women are more affected by long-term illness and lowered capacity to work than men the gender wage gap is larger. Furthermore, there is a significant relation between the gender wage gap and human capital. The gender wage gap is larger in municipalities where a large share of the population has a higher education.

Bakgrund: Tidigare studier belyser hur jämställdhet inte blir till verkliga handlingar i organisationer. Vi konstaterar i denna studie att chefer är aktörer för verkställandet av jämställdhet till reella handlingar till följd av att det finns lagkrav på arbetsgivare att arbeta för att främja jämställdhet. Det som görs beträffande jämställdhet av chefer i organisationer idag kan förklaras som ojämställt därför undersöker denna studie; hinder, utmaningar och möjligheter i chefers verkställande av jämställdhet, vilket mynnar ut i följande problemformulering: Vilka hinder, utmaningar och möjligheter upplever chefer i sitt lagstadgade arbete med att verkställa och göra jämställdhet? Syfte: Denna studie syftar till att genom ett aktörs- och verksamhetsnära perspektiv, undersöka chefers lagstadgade arbete i att verkställa jämställdhet samt vilka hinder och utmaningar jämställdhetsarbete består av, genom tre feministiska teoribildningar presenterade av Kanter, Butler och Cavarero samt vad jämställdhetsarbete definieras som. Metod: Studien har genomförts med kvalitativ metod genom sex intervjuer med sju informanter i skilda branscher i Västra Götalandsregionen. Empiriska resultat och tolkning: Trots varierande förutsättningar i de olika branscherna studien undersöker, förekommer gemensamma karaktärsdrag. Informanterna i studien lägger vikt vid att strukturer i organisationen bör skapa jämställda möjligheter i karriären för såväl kvinnor som män. Samtliga informanterna anser att en jämn könsfördelning berikar arbetsgruppen genom att utöka med flera perspektiv. Ledarskapet är av stor vikt vid verkställandet av jämställdhet. Slutsatser: Hinder och utmaningar för jämställdhet utgörs av såväl strukturella- som könsbarriärer. Ett relationellt och individanpassat ledarskap öppnar upp för möjligheter av jämställdhet. / Background: Earlier studies illustrate how gender equality does not become real acts in organizations. We note in this study that executives are actors of the implementation of gender equality into real actions as a result of the legal requirements for employers to work to promote gender equality. What is being done about gender equality by managers in organizations today can be explained as gender inequality, hence this study examines; obstacles, challenges and opportunities in managers' implementation of gender equality, which emerges in the following problem formulation: What obstacles, challenges and opportunities do executives experience in their statutory work on implementing and equality? Purpose: This study aims at investigating the legislative work of managers in implementing gender equality and the obstacles and challenges of gender equality work through three feminist theories presented by Kanter, Butler and Cavarero, as well as what gender equality work is defined as. Method: The study has been conducted with qualitative method through six interviews with seven informants in different industries in the region of Västra Götaland, Sweden. Empirical results and interpretation: Despite the varied conditions in the different industries the study examines, there are common characteristics. The informants in the study emphasize that structures in the organization should create equal opportunities in the career of both women and men. All informants believe that an even gender structure enriches the working group by expanding with several perspectives. Leadership is of great importance in the implementation of gender equality. Conclusions: Obstacles and challenges for gender equality consist of both structural and gender barriers. Relational and individualized leadership opens for opportunities for gender equality.

Syftet med denna kvantitativa studie var att kartlägga förekomsten av mäns kollektiva skuld gentemot kvinnor i arbetslivet och dess eventuella samvarians med mäns attityd till könsbaserad ojämlikhet på arbetsplatsen. Även skillnader i kollektiv skuld och attityd till könsbaserad ojämlikhet mellan unga (18–41 år) och äldre (42–65 år) män undersöktes. En enkät delades ut till manliga anställda på ett internationellt telekombolag. Enkäten bestod av frågor översatta från Branscombe Collective Guilt Scale (BCGS) som mätte grad av kollektiv skuld samt frågor från Men´s Polarized Gender Thinking Questionnaire (MPGQ) som mätte mäns attityd till könsbaserad ojämlikhet på arbetsplatsen. Resultatet visade att kollektiv skuld hos män förekommer. En signifikant korrelation uppmättes mellan MPGQ och BCGS. Unga män rapporterade signifikant högre grad av kollektiv skuld jämfört med äldre män. Ingen signifikant skillnad uppmättes i attityd mellan grupperna. Denna studie belyser förekomsten av kollektiv skuld, dess koppling till attityd samt ålders inverkan på kollektiv skuld. / The purpose of this study was to examine the occurrence of collective guilt among men against women in working life and its possible correlation with men's attitude towards gender-based inequality at the workplace. Differences in collective guilt and attitude towards gender-based inequality between young (18-41 years) and elder (42-65 years) men was studied. A survey was distributed to an international telecom company. The survey was based on the Branscombe Colletive Guilt Scale (BCGS) which measured the level of collective guilt and the Men´s Polarized Gender Thinking Questionnaire (MPGQ) which measured men's attitude towards gender-based inequality in the workplace. The result demonstrated that collective guilt in men occurred. A significant correlation was measured between MPGQ and BCGS. Young men reported significantly higher levels of collective guilt compared to older men. This study illustrates the existence of collective guilt, its link to attitude, as well as the age's impact on collective guilt.

Cette thèse, qui s'appuie sur une une recherche-action, s'est intéressée à la façon dont des professeur-e-s des écoles peuvent s'approprier, puis s'emparer de la demande qui leur est faite d'éduquer leurs élèves à l'égalité des sexes. Le point de départ du travail qui a débuté au début de l'année scolaire 2014-2015, a été l'analyse, collective et en collaboration entre praticien- ne- s et chercheuse, des albums pour la jeunesse exploités ou à exploiter dans les classes dans l'optique de la mise en œuvre de cette éducation. Dans une démarche d'investigation pratique, les expérimentations dans les écoles ont visé à développer l'esprit critique des enfants quant aux stéréotypes de sexes véhiculés par les albums jeunesse et à leur implication dans les inégalités entre les sexes. Les enfants, en adoptant des techniques de "petits chercheurs" (observations, tris, utilisations de grilles d'analyse, statistiques, ...), ont été amenés à effectuer des recherches quantitatives et qualitatives sur les albums de leur école afin de cerner les représentations sexuées, leurs expressions et conséquences. La Recherche-Action a montré comment les enseignant-e-s en analysant les avancées de leurs élèves ont transformé leur vision de l'éducation à l'égalité des sexes et leur pratique professionnelle à ce sujet. / Based on an action-research approach, this thesis focuses on how teachers consider and embrace the injunctions to educate their students to gender equality. The starting point of this work began in 2014 when teachers and researchers collectively analyzed youth albums exploited or to be exploited in classrooms. Schools experiments aimed to develop the children’s critical thinking on gender stereotypes conveyed by children's books were also carried out. By adopting a "little scientists" technique (commenting, sorting, use of analysis grids, use of statistics, ...), the children were asked to perform quantitative and qualitative research on their school albums in order to identify gendered representations, their expressions and consequences. The action-research process has revealed how teachers, by analyzing the progress of their students, transformed their own vision of education to gender equality and their professional practice in this regard.

Interest in this study was evoked by concern over the small percentage of women employed as school administrators. Despite recent legislation, this situation has not changed markedly. This study was needed to determine the current status, attitudes, and concerns of women certified as administrators in Texas with those of the superintendents of Texas public school districts? and to compare the differences of the two concerning this situation. It was concluded that not only did a larger percentage of the women prefer to be employed as elementary school administrators, but also the superintendents felt they would be more likely to be employed at that level. It was further concluded that a majority of the superintendents were likely to give women substantial consideration for employment as elementary school administrators, but were unlikely to hire them as chief administrators of their secondary schools. Many of the women also perceived that Texas school districts are still "in effect" participating in sexually discriminatory hiring practices whether or not the superintendents are aware of the situation. The attitudes of the women and the superintendents very clearly differed concerning opportunities available for female administrators in Texas.

Main goal of this thesis is to analyze human development index for European countries and provide cluster analysis not only of human development index but even of another quality of life variables and to find similarities between particular countries by using hierarchical methods. The first part focuses on quality of life and definition of human development index. Human development index is one possibility how to measure quality of life, there are mentioned another possibilities, though how to analyze it. The second part of the thesis focuses on cluster analysis definition, which is used for searching for similarities between particular countries. Five hierarchical cluster methods is used for classify countries into clusters. Euclidean metric is used for express the distance between countries. Similar variables between countries is judged according to sorting into clusters by hierarchical methods. Diploma thesis enlightens similarity between European countries from quality of life overview and provides statistical evidence about this topic. Results of the thesis confirms similarities between geographical close states.

La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo documentar algunas aproximaciones teóricas respecto a la temática del recreo escolar en la educación básica iberoamericana. Para ello, se empleó un diseño metodológico documental que permitió la revisión y análisis de 35 fuentes obtenidas de diferentes bases de datos especializadas. Del mismo modo, se enfatizó en las consideraciones que parten desde un conocimiento empírico, proveniente de la práctica educativa y relacionada con la vida cotidiana del ámbito escolar. Los principales hallazgos indican que el recreo escolar es un espacio de mayor interacción social y participación libre según los intereses, capacidades y habilidades por parte de los estudiantes. Asimismo, es un elemento fundamental en el desarrollo social, cultural, físico y en la práctica de valores para la vida en comunidad. Por último, se reflexionó sobre los resultados, proponiéndose la necesidad de avanzar en los estudios vinculados al recreo escolar para fortalecer la comprensión de este factor en las instituciones educativas a partir de nuevas dimensiones, contextos y agentes educativos. / The objective of this research was to document some theoretical approaches regarding the subject of school recess in basic education in Latin America. To this end, a documentary methodological design was used that allowed the review and analysis of 35 sources obtained from different specialized databases. Similarly, it emphasized considerations from empirical knowledge, from educational practice and related to the daily life of the school. Key findings indicate that school recess is a space for greater social interaction and free participation based on students' interests, abilities, and skills. Also, it is a fundamental element in the social, cultural, physical development and in practice of values for the life in community. Finally, one reflected on the results, proposing to him the need to advance in the studies linked to the school playtime to strengthen the comprehension of this factor in the educational institutions from new dimensions, contexts and educational agents. / Trabajo de investigación