Objective: Activated astroglia is involved in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases and has also been described in animal models of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Given the urgent need of biomarkers for treatment monitoring of new RNA-modifying and gene replacement therapies in SMA, we examined glial fibrillary acidic protein concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid (cGFAP) as a marker of astrogliosis in SMA. - Methods: 58 adult patients and 21 children with genetically confirmed 5q-associated SMA from four German motor neuron disease specialist care centers and 30 age- and sex-matched controls were prospectively included in this study. cGFAP was measured and correlated to motor performance and disease severity. Additionally, we compared fL). - Results: cGFAP concentrations did not differ from controls but showed higher levels in more severely affected patients after adjustment for patients’ age. Normalized cNfL values were associated with disease severity. Within 14 months of nusinersen treatment, cGFAP concentrations did not change, while cNfL decreased significantly. - Interpretation: cGFAP is not an outstanding biomarker in SMA, but might support the hypothesis that glial activation is involved in SMA pathology. Unlike previously suggested, cNfL may be a promising biomarker also in adult patients with SMA, which should be subject to further investigations.

Recent studies examining cell-cell interactions during CNS development and following disease or trauma have highlighted our limited understanding of the in vivo functions of the myelinating cell of the CNS, the oligodendrocyte. With this in mind, our laboratory has developed techniques by which a profile of proteins derived from or regulated by oligodendrocytes can be elucidated. Specifically, we have demonstrated that oligodendrocytes can be selectively eliminated from one optic nerve of a rat by treating the animal with a unilateral exposure of X-irradiation at the time of birth. Consequently, this approach allowed us to experimentally create, within the same animal, one optic nerve devoid of oligodendrocytes and their progenitors (the X- irradiated side) and one optic nerve containing the normal oligodendrocyte population (the untreated side). Using this experimental animal model we hypothesized that uncharacterized proteins, derived from and regulated by oligodendrocytes, which are crucial for CNS development can be identified. Specifically, by comparing protein profiles found within the normal myelinating optic nerve versus the X-irradiated optic nerve, where oligodendrocytes are absent, potential oligodendrocyte-derived proteins can be quickly identified. Further verification that these proteins are indeed related to oligodendrocytes and/or the processes of myelination can be obtained by their reappearance in the 2-D gel protein profile of P28 X-irradiated nerves that, as we have shown previously, undergo a delayed myelination. We then employed mass spectrometric analysis to determine the identities of oligodendrocyte derivedregulated proteins. In this thesis, I will begin by describing our current knowledge of the proteins expressed by oligodendrocytes and their role(s) in oligodendrocyte function. This will be followed by a detailed description of the experimental model system we utilized in an attempt to elucidate the complete repertoire of oligodendrocyte-regulated proteins. We will then describe the results generated fiom our methodology and discuss the implications of our findings in relation to the functional cooperation between oligodendrocytes and other cells of the developing central nervous system. The results generated fiom this project should lead to a clearer understanding of the role of oligodendrocytes and'of the array of proteins whose expression patterns are associated with these cells during CNS development.

Les mécanismes développementaux qui spécifient le nombre et le phénotype laminaire des neurones du cortex cérébral jouent un rôle essentiel dans l’établissement de la cytoarchitecture corticale. Le nombre de neurones dans chaque couche d'une aire donnée est déterminé par le taux de production neuronale, qui dépend étroitement de l'équilibre entre les divisions prolifératives et différenciatives. Des observations clés suggèrent que la durée de la phase G1 (TG1) ferait partie intégrante d'un mécanisme cellulaire régulant le mode de division des précurseurs du cortex. Nous avons testé cette hypothèse par l'accélération expérimentale de la progression dans la phase G1 de précurseurs corticaux de souris in vivo, via la surexpression des cyclines E1 et D1. A E15, la réduction de TG1 promeut la rentrée dans le cycle cellulaire aux dépens de la différenciation neuronale, résultant en une modification de la cytoarchitecture du cortex adulte. Des données de modélisation confirment que les effets induits par la réduction de TG1 sont médiés par des changements du mode de division. Les effets de la surexpression des cyclines E1 et D2 à E13 sont plus modérés qu'à E15, indiquant des différences intrinsèques entre les précurseurs corticaux précoces et tardifs. La mesure des phases du cycle cellulaire des populations de précurseurs corticaux à l’aide de différentes techniques révèle un niveau important d’hétérogénéité et souligne la nécessité de prendre en compte la diversité des précurseurs co‐existant dans les zones germinales du télencéphale. / In the cerebral cortex, area‐specific differences in neuron number and phenotype are distinguishing features both within and across species. The developmental mechanisms that specify the number of neurons and their laminar fate are instrumental in specifying cortical cytoarchitecture. Neuron number in layers and areas correlate with changes in the rate of neuron production, largely determined by the balance between proliferative and differentiative divisions in cortical precursors. Key observations suggest a concerted regulation between the duration of the G1 phase (TG1) and mode of division and have led to the hypothesis that TG1 could be an integral part of a cellular mechanism regulating the mode of division of cortical precursors. To test this hypothesis we experimentally accelerated TG1 in mouse cortical precursors in vivo, via the forced expression of cyclinE1 and cyclinD1. At E15, TG1 reduction promoted cell‐cycle re‐entry at the expense of differentiation and led to cytoarchitectural modifications. Modeling confirms that the TG1‐induced changes in neuron production and laminar fate are mediated via the changes in the mode of division. Forced expression of G1 cyclins was also applied to early cortical precursors. The effects of cyclinD1 and cyclinE1 up‐regulation at E13 were milder than those observed at E15, pointing to intrinsic differences between early and late cortical precursors. The used of various techniques to measure cell‐cycle kinetics in distinct precursor populations underlined the necessity of taking the full diversity of neural precursors co‐existing in the GZ of the telencephalon into account when performing cellcycle kinetics analysis.

A técnica de mobilização neural (NM) clinicamente é eficaz, porém ainda é pouco fundamentada. Neste trabalho, submetemos ratos Wistar no 14º dia após a lesão constritiva crônica (CCI) do nervo isquiático ao tratamento com NM, em 10 sessões, e avaliamos o comportamento doloroso utilizando testes comportamentais para hiperalgesia e alodinia. Ainda, observamos através de ensaios de Western blotting o envolvimento das células gliais e do fator neurotrófico derivado do cérebro (BDNF). No estudo comportamental, os animais com CCI mostraram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo, tratados com a NM apresentaram melhora no comportamento doloroso. Os ensaios de Western blotting mostraram que após a CCI houve aumento de OX-42, GFAP e BDNF, na medula, tálamo e mesencéfalo, também observado em analise de imuno-histoquímica e após a NM observamos diminuição desses mediadores através da primeira técnica mencionada. Sendo assim, sugerimos que a técnica de NM é eficaz como terapia analgésica, sendo possível observar o envolvimento das células gliais e do BDNF neste modelo experimental. / The technique of neural mobilization (NM) is clinically effective, although it is still poorly reasoned. In this study, Wistar rats on day 14th after chronic constrictive injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve were submitted to treatment with NM in 10 sessions, and it was evaluated the painful behavior using tests for hyperalgesia and allodynia. Also, we observed through Western blotting assays the involvementof glial cells and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In the behavioral study, animals with CCI showed a decrease in nociceptive threshold, and those treated with NM showed an improvement in pain behavior. Western blotting assays showed an increase after CCI of OX-42, GFAP and BDNF levels in the spinal cord, thalamus and midbrain, also observed in immunohistochemical analysis, and after the NM we observed a decrease of these mediators through the first technique mentioned. Therefore, we suggest that the NM technique is an effective analgesic therapy, and it is possible to observe the involvement of glial cells and BDNF in this experimental model.

Les lésions de la moelle épinière (LME) touchent 2.5 à 4 millions de personnes dans le monde (40 000 en France). Les LME induisent des symptômes sensitifs et moteurs conduisant, pour les lésions les plus sévères, à une tétraplégie complète. L’imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) est la seule méthode permettant le suivi des patients ayant une lésion de la moelle épinière.Dans cette étude, nous avons développé un suivi IRM in vivo qui permet d'identifier avec précision chez la souris et le primate non-humain la progression d’une lésion médullaire dans différents contextes. L’objectif étant d’utiliser les mêmes techniques chez l’Homme et chez l’animal. En particulier, nous avons montré que les souris CX3CR1+/eGFP et Aldh1l1-EGFP qui expriment respectivement une protéine fluorescente (eGFP) dans les microglies et les astrocytes présentent une récupération fonctionnelle différente, les CX3CR1 +/eGFP récupérant mieux. Afin d’identifier si ces récupérations sont associées à une évolution lésionnelle différentielle, nous avons effectué un suivi longitudinal en utilisant l’IRM pondérée T2 in vivo. Nous avons aussi réalisé des analyses approfondies des tissus de la moelle épinière en utilisant deux techniques d'IRM ex vivo (IRM en pondération T2 et en diffusion) ainsi qu'une analyse histologique détaillée. Enfin, nous avons effectué un suivi longitudinal de l'évolution de la lésion sur un groupe supplémentaire de souris en utilisant l’IRM pondérée en diffusion in vivo. Les analyses IRM pondérée en T2 ex vivo, in vivo et l'histologie n'ont révélé aucune différence au niveau lésionnel entre les deux souches de souris. Au contraire, les IRM pondérées diffusion en ex vivo et in vivo ont permis l’identification d’une plus faible surface lésionnelle à l'épicentre chez les souris CX3CR1+/eGFP, la souche ayant une meilleure récupération fonctionnelle.Nous avons ensuite évalué l’impact d’une stratégie thérapeutique consistant en la modulation de la cicatrice gliale, principale limitation de la repousse axonale après une lésion médullaire. Cette modulation, consiste en une déplétion pharmacologique transitoire de la prolifération des microglies et son évaluation a été réalisée par un suivi en imagerie puis en histologie des animaux traités ou non. Le suivi IRM n’a pas permis d‘identifier une différence entre les animaux traités et non-traités en terme d’extension et de volume lésionnel. Par contre, nous avons observé une différence dans le coefficient de diffusion apparent parallèle (ADC//, gradient de diffusion appliqué dans la direction des axones) entre les deux groupes, attestant de l’effet du traitement sur l’organisation cellulaire après une LME.Enfin, nous avons utilisé l’IRM in et ex vivo pour caractériser un nouveau modèle de lésion de la moelle épinière sur un primate non-humain. Nous avons démontré qu’une hémisection latérale de la moelle épinière chez Microcebus murinus est un modèle reproductible de LME chez le primate non-humain qui pourrait être utilisé pour promouvoir une transition vers la recherche translationnelle.Nous avons donc caractérisé l’utilisation de l’IRM in vivo et ex vivo dans la mise en place d’une comparaison entre deux souches de souris présentant une récupération différente après une LME. De même, le suivi in et ex vivo chez une autre espèce, Microcebus murinus, un primate non-humain, a permis la caractérisation d’un nouveau modèle de LME. Enfin, l’IRM a permis de détecter une différence de coefficient de diffusion provoquée par la déplétion spécifique et transitoire des microglies dans un contexte de LME. / Spinal cord injuries (SCI) affect 2.5 to 4 million people worldwide (40,000 in France). SCI induce sensory and motor symptoms leading to complete tetraplegia for the most severe lesions. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the only method used to follow patients with a spinal cord injury.In this study, we have developed an in vivo MRI follow-up that accurately assess the progression of a lesion of the spinal cord in mice and non-human primates. The objective being to use the same techniques in humans and animals.In particular, we showed that the CX3CR1+/eGFP and Aldh1l1-EGFP mice, that respectively express a fluorescent protein (eGFP) in microglia and astrocytes exhibit different functional recovery, and a better one is observed in CX3CR1+/eGFP mice. In order to identify whether these recoveries are associated with a differential evolution of the lesion, we performed a longitudinal follow-up using T2-weighted in vivo MRI. We also performed additional analyzes of spinal cord tissues using two ex vivo MRI (T2 and diffusion weighted MRI) as well as detailed histological analysis. Finally, we implemented our analysis with a longitudinal in vivo diffusion-weighted MRI follow-up of lesion evolution on an additional group of mice. Ex and in vivo T2-weighted MRI analyzes as well as histological assessment revealed no difference in lesion between the two mouse strains. Conversely, ex and in vivo diffusion-weighted MRI allowed identifying a lower lesion area at the epicenter in CX3CR1+/eGFP mice, the strain that recovers better.We then evaluated the impact of a therapeutic strategy based on the modulation of the glial scar that plays a major role on the absence of spontaneous axonal regrowth after spinal cord injury. This modulation consists in a transient pharmacological depletion of microglia proliferation and its evaluation was carried out by an imaging and histological follow-up of treated and un-treated animals. MRI monitoring did not permit to identify a difference in lesion extension and volume between groups. However, we observed a difference in parallel apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC//, diffusion gradient applied in axons direction) detected between the two groups, attesting of an effect of the treatment on the cellular organization after an SCI.Finally, we used in and ex vivo MRI to characterize a new model of spinal cord injury in a non-human primate. We demonstrated that a lateral hemisection of the spinal cord in Microcebus murinus is a reproducible non-human primate model of SCI that could be further used to promote translational research.We therefore characterized the use of in and ex vivo MRI to compare two mouse strains with different recovery after SCI. Similarly, the in and ex vivo follow-up of another species, Microcebus murinus, a nonhuman primate, allowed the characterization of a new SCI model. Finally, using MRI we detected a difference in parallel diffusion coefficient that was induced by the specific and transient depletion of microglia in a SCI context.

Dans les pays industrialisés, les pathologies oculaires à composante vasculaires, que ce soit la rétinopathie du prématuré (ROP), la rétinopathie du diabétique ou la dégénérescence lié à l’âge, représentent la première cause de cécité respectivement chez l’enfant, l’adulte et la personne âgée. Plusieurs études sur l’homme ou sur des modèles animaux ont souligné le rôle crucial joué des acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) au cours de ces rétinopathies et notamment l’action préventive des acides gras polyinsaturés oméga 3 (AGPI n-3) sur l’angiogenèse pathologique. Ces AGPI sont estérifiés dans les glycérophospholipides constituant les membranes cellulaires. On les retrouve également dans une classe particulière de glycérophospholipides, les plasmalogènes. La particularité des plasmalogènes réside dans leur liaison vinyl-éther en position sn-1 au lieu d’une liaison ester dans les autres glycérophospholipides. Les AGPI sont libérés des plasmalogènes par une phospholipase indépendante au calcium, la iPLA2, pour devenir des métabolites actifs. Les plasmalogènes via la libération des AGPI joueraient un rôle dans la mise en place et la maturation du réseau vasculaire rétinien et ce, notamment grâce à la bonne mise en place du réseau astrocytaire. Les astrocytes et les cellules de Müller sont les cellules macrogliales qui servent de soutien physique et métabolique à la rétine. De plus, les cellules de Müller participent au métabolisme des lipides. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a été d’évaluer l’implication des plasmalogènes dans le métabolisme des cellules de Müller et des astrocytes mais aussi dans la communication entre ces cellules macrogliales. Nous avons également étudié le profil lipidique d’enfants prématurés pour mettre en évidence de potentielles altérations du métabolisme des plasmalogènes chez des nouveau-nés développant une rétinopathie à composante vasculaire, la rétinopathie du prématuré (ROP). Pour ce faire nous avons étudié les effets d’une diminution en plasmalogènes et/ou en iPLA2 sur des cellules de Müller en culture primaire après avoir préalablement vérifié l’expression de l’enzyme clef de la biosynthèse des plasmalogènes. Nous avons ensuite étudié les effets d’une diminution des teneurs en plasmalogènes sur la communication calcique entre les cellules de Müller et les astrocytes. Nos résultats ont montré que les cellules de Müller expriment l’enzyme-clé de synthèse des plasmalogènes et que ces cellules sont plus riches en plasmalogènes que la rétine entière. Les plasmalogènes seraient impliqués dans le contrôle de la migration des cellules de Müller par l’action de la voie ERK1/2 MAPK. Ces effets ne semblent pas passer par la libération des AGPI. De plus nos résultats suggèrent une dégradation de la communication entre les astrocytes et les cellules de Müller en cas de diminution des teneurs en plasmalogènes dans les cellules de Müller. Enfin chez l’homme nous avons mis en évidence une accumulation des AGPI n-6 au détriment des AGPI n-3 dans les érythrocytes des enfants développant une rétinopathie du prématuré et inversement dans le groupe d’enfants prématuré contrôle. L’ensemble de ces travaux confirme l’importance du métabolisme lipidique, et plus particulièrement celui des plasmalogènes, sur le fonctionnement de la rétine. / Retinal vascular disorders such as retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), diabetic retinopathy or age-related macular degeneration represent the first cause of vision loss at all ages in industrialized countries. Many epidemiological or animal studies have shown the involvement of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the regulation of vascular development and more specifically the beneficial properties of omega 3 PUFA (n-3 PUFA) against pathological vascularization. Those PUFA are esterified on glycerophospholipids (GP). GP are the primary constituents of the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. PUFA can be also esterified on a specific class of GP, called plasmalogens. Plasmalogens are characterized by the presence of a vinyl ether linkage at the sn-1 position of glycerol instead of an ester linkage as seen in other GP. PUFA are released from plasmalogens by a calcium-independent phospholipase (iPLA2). Free PUFA can be converted into biologically active metabolites. Plasmalogens may have an impact on the development and the maturation of retinal vascular network through the PUFA they release through the control of astrocyte template formation prior to vessel formation. Astrocytes and Müller cells are macroglials cells providing physical and metabolic supports to the retina. Müller cells are key actors of the retinal lipid metabolism. The aim of this work was to evaluate the involvement of plasmalogens in Müller cells and astrocytes metabolism as well as in the ability of these cells to communicate. On one hand, we have studied the effects of a decrease in plasmalogen biosynthesis and/or in iPLA2 activity on Müller cell physiology. Müller cells express a biosynthesis key enzyme of plasmalogen and reducing the biosynthesis of plasmalogens affects Müller cell ability to migrate through the ERK1/2 MAPK signalling. In a second series of studies, we studied the repercussions of such modifications on Müller cell physiology on their ability to communicate with retinal astrocytes through calcium signalling. Our results suggest that affecting plasmalogen metabolism in Müller cells alters the communication between astrocytes and Müller cells. Finally, and in order to investigate whether plasmalogen metabolism may be modified in a human disease displaying abnormal retinal vascular development, we performed a lipidomic study of circulating lipids in infants affected by retinopathy of prematurity. ROP was characterized by the accumulation of n-6 PUFA at the expense of n-3 PUFA, these changes being associated to plasmalogens. All these experiments confirm the importance of lipid metabolism, and especially plasmalogens, on the retina functioning.

Os Transtornos do Espectro do Autismo, aqui tratados coletivamente sob o termo “autismo”, são distúrbios do desenvolvimento caracterizados por prejuízo no uso da linguagem e na comunicação, redução na interação social e comportamentos e interesses restritos e repetitivos. Evidências sugerem que o autismo é um transtorno multifatorial uma vez que se sabe da existência de um componente genético mas também da contribuição de fatores ambientais como infecções e uso de anticonvulsivantes ao logo da gestação. Apesar do grande número de estudos, a causa do transtorno é desconhecida, não existe tratamento e nenhum marcador diagnóstico foi identificado até o momento. O modelo animal baseado na administração pré-natal de ácido valpróico em ratos foi utilizado como ferramenta de estudo no presente trabalho e, através deste, foram realizadas análises de parâmetros astrocíticos no córtex frontal, hipocampo, estriado e cerebelo de ratos com 4 e 15 dias de idade, além de análises no hipocampo de animais de 120 dias. Os animais de 4 dias de idade apresentam níveis aumentados da proteína glial fibrilar ácida (GFAP) no cerebelo Já os animais de 15 dias apresentam maiores níveis de GFAP em todas as estruturas estudadas. Além disso, há aumento nos níveis de vimentina no hipocampo e no conteúdo de S100B no córtex frontal e estriado. A atividade da glutamina sintetase encontra-se aumentada no hipocampo e reduzida no cerebelo e estriado. Além disso, nossos dados mostraram efeito do VPA sobre a transmissão glutamatérgica uma vez que houve aumento na captação desse transmissor, somada à maior expressão de GLT1 e conteúdo de GSH, além de diminuição na atividade da GS em 120 dias. Nossos resultados indicam que o VPA induz um processo de astrogliose reativa no encéfalo e que o cerebelo parece ser uma estrutura particularmente vulnerável. Sugere-se que os padrões regionais específicos das alterações encefálicas sejam causados pela heterogeneidade dos astrócitos e que a astrogliose pode ter papel no estabelecimento das características fisiopatológicas do autismo. Estudos adicionais são necessários para compreender a origem dessas alterações bem como suas consequências e suas implicações no diagnóstico e tratamento do autismo. / Autism Spectrum Disorders, which will be called “autism” in the present work, consist of a group of developmental disorders characterized by deficits in language and communication, low social interaction and restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests. It is known as a multifactorial disorder including both genetic and environmental components such as maternal infections and anticonvulsant used during pregnancy. Despite of the increasing number of publications in this area, the cause of autism is still unknown and there is neither treatment nor clinical marker. The animal model of autism based on the prenatal exposure to valproic acid in rats was used here to study different astrocytic parameters in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, striatum and cerebellum of male rats with 4 (P4) and 15 (P15) days of age. Additional analyses were done in the hippocampus of 120 days old rats (P120). The expression of GFAP increased in the cerebellum of P4 and in all brain structures from P15 rats. The number of vimentin+ astrocytes increased in hippocampus from P15 group and S100B levels increased in striatum and prefrontal cortex. The activity of GS in P15 increased in hippocampus and decreased in cerebellum and striatum. The effect of VPA on glutamatergic transmission was investigated in P120 were there was an increase in glutamate uptake, GLT1 expression and GSH content and reduced GS activity. Our results indicate that VPA induces early reactive astrogliosis and that cerebellum seems to be especially vulnerable. Regional patterns of brain alterations are probably due to astrocytic heterogeneity and astrogliosis seems to be relevant in establishing autistic neuropathological features. Additional studies are needed to better understand what triggers these alterations and what are their consequences and implications in autism diagnosis and treatment.

O envelhecimento é uma falha progressiva nos processos fisiológicos celulares, produzindo alterações morfológicas nas células e nos tecidos. No sistema nervoso, produz uma redução no número de neurônios, nas fibras nervosas, principalmente nas arborizações dendríticas e nas espinhas sinápticas, e nas células da glia que, de acordo com sua localização e tipo celular, podem diminuir, permanecer constantes ou mesmo aumentar numericamente. Na presente pesquisa, avaliou-se os efeitos do envelhecimento sobre o gânglio trigeminal (GT) de ratos Wistar em animais jovens (2 meses de vida), adultos (12 meses de vida) e idosos (24 meses de vida). Os GT foram submetidos às técnicas histológicas da hematoxilina e eosina e Picro-sírius, onde avaliou-se, respectivamente, a densidade das células satélites glias (CGS) e o componente colágeno ganglionar. Através da técnica histoquímica da NADH-d, avaliou-se a área do perfil do GT, a área do perfil dos corpos celulares dos neurônios ganglionares e a densidade neuronal. Uma avaliação qualitativa foi também realizada relativamente à imunorreatividade dos neurônios ganglionares à substância P (SP) e ao peptídeo intestinal vasoativo (VIP). A densidade das CGS foi maior nos animais jovens do que nos animais adultos e idosos. Verificou-se, qualitativamente, que à medida que o animal envelhece há uma diminuição das fibras colágenas do tipo III, passando a predominar, nos animais idosos, as fibras do tipo I. A área do perfil celular dos corpos neuronais foi maior nos animais adultos sendo que em todos os grupos predominaram neurônios de tamanho médio, com a área do perfil celular entre 490 e 1100 μm2. A densidade neuronal apresentou-se maior nos animais jovens, e sem variações estatísticas entre os animais adultos e idosos. Em todos os grupos estudados, os neurônios pequenos foram os que apresentaram maior imunorreatividade à SP e ao VIP. / Aging is a progressive failure in cellular physiological processes. It determines morphological changes in cells of different tissues. In the nervous system, a reduction in neuron number and in neuron fibers, mainly in dendritic tree and synaptic, are described. With aging the glial cells may increase or decrease in number or also remain constant. In the present work the effects of aging were evaluated on the trigeminal ganglion (TG) comparing young (2 months age), adult (12 months age) and old rats (24 months age). Histological sections of TG were stained with hematoxilin-eosin technique to determine the density of satellite glial cells and Picro-sirius under polarized light to evaluate the Types I and III of collagen fibers. The NADH-diaphorase technique allowed determining the perycarion area. The immunoreactivity of ganglionar neurons to Substance P (SP) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) were also qualitatively evaluated. The glial cells density was higher in young and adult animals than in old animals. The type I collagen fibers predominates in ganglia of old animals whereas in the young animals is characteristic the presence of the type III collagen fibers. Although the perycarion area was higher in adult animals the medium-sized neurons predominated in all groups. Their areas ranged from 490 to 1100 μm2. It was also observed that the neuron density was higher in young animals. In the adult and old animals the neuron density was similar. In all groups the immunoreactivity both to SP an VIP was detected mainly in neurons of small perycarion.

<p>Nerve injury induces up-regulation of the chaperone protein clusterin in affected neurons and adjacent astrocytes but the functional significance of this response is unclear. We find that motor neuron survival is significantly greater in clusterin(+/+) compared to (-/-) mice. These results suggest that endogenous expression of clusterin is neuroprotective after nerve injury. However, motor neuron survival in clusterin overexpressing mice was not different from that in wildtype mice. In contrast, treatment of neuronal cultures with clusterin-TAT recombinant protein is neuroprotective, including a positive effect on neuronal network complexity.</p><p>Since extracellular clusterin complexes are endocytosed after binding to various receptors, we examined the expression of known clusterin binding receptors in the spinal cord. We find that megalin is expressed in the nuclei of two cell populations in the mouse spinal cord: i) oligodendrocytes in late postnatal and adult spinal cord white matter, and ii) transiently (E11-15) in a population of immature astrocytes in the dorsal spinal cord. We find no correlation between clusterin and megalin in the intact or injured spinal cord. However, intranuclear localization of megalin, suggesting signalling properties, is supported by the co-localization with γ-secretase, the enzyme responsible for endodomain cleavage of megalin. Megalin deficient mice display a pronounced deformation of the dorsal part of spinal cord, an almost complete absence of oligodendroglial progenitor cells, and a marked reduction in the population of mature astrocytes at later prenatal developmental stages.</p><p>Taken together, our findings indicate that megalin is a novel signalling molecule for distinct populations of glial cells in the pre- and postnatal spinal cord. The functional role(s) of megalin is unknown. However, its expression patterns and cellular localization suggest that megalin regulates differentiation of oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in the prenatal spinal cord, as well as the function of myelinating oligodendrocytes in the postnatal spinal cord.</p>

Nerve injury induces up-regulation of the chaperone protein clusterin in affected neurons and adjacent astrocytes but the functional significance of this response is unclear. We find that motor neuron survival is significantly greater in clusterin(+/+) compared to (-/-) mice. These results suggest that endogenous expression of clusterin is neuroprotective after nerve injury. However, motor neuron survival in clusterin overexpressing mice was not different from that in wildtype mice. In contrast, treatment of neuronal cultures with clusterin-TAT recombinant protein is neuroprotective, including a positive effect on neuronal network complexity. Since extracellular clusterin complexes are endocytosed after binding to various receptors, we examined the expression of known clusterin binding receptors in the spinal cord. We find that megalin is expressed in the nuclei of two cell populations in the mouse spinal cord: i) oligodendrocytes in late postnatal and adult spinal cord white matter, and ii) transiently (E11-15) in a population of immature astrocytes in the dorsal spinal cord. We find no correlation between clusterin and megalin in the intact or injured spinal cord. However, intranuclear localization of megalin, suggesting signalling properties, is supported by the co-localization with γ-secretase, the enzyme responsible for endodomain cleavage of megalin. Megalin deficient mice display a pronounced deformation of the dorsal part of spinal cord, an almost complete absence of oligodendroglial progenitor cells, and a marked reduction in the population of mature astrocytes at later prenatal developmental stages. Taken together, our findings indicate that megalin is a novel signalling molecule for distinct populations of glial cells in the pre- and postnatal spinal cord. The functional role(s) of megalin is unknown. However, its expression patterns and cellular localization suggest that megalin regulates differentiation of oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in the prenatal spinal cord, as well as the function of myelinating oligodendrocytes in the postnatal spinal cord.